Screening methods to identify inhibitors of telomerase activity

ABSTRACT

Method and compositions are provided for the determination of telomere length and telomerase activity, as well as the ability to inhibit telomerase activity in the treatment of proliferative diseases. Particularly, primers are elongated under conditions which minimize interference from other genomic sequences, so as to obtain accurate determinations of telomeric length or telomerase activity. In addition, compositions are provided for intracellular inhibition of telomerase activity and means are shown for slowing the loss of telomeric repeats in aging cells.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 08/060,952, filed May 13,1993; now U.S. Pat. No. 5,695,932 issued Dec. 9, 1997 herebyincorporated by reference herein in totality, including drawings.

This application is a continuation-in-part of Michael D. West et al.,entitled “Therapy and diagnosis of conditions related to telomere lengthand/or telomerase activity, filed Mar. 24, 1993 and assigned U.S. Ser.No. 08/038,766, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,489,508 issued Feb. 6, 1996 which isa continuation-in-part of Michael D. West et al., entitled “TelomeraseActivity Modulation and Telomere Diagnosis”, filed May 13, 1992, andassigned U.S. Ser. No. 07/882,438, now abandoned both (includingdrawings) hereby incorporated by reference herein.

This invention relates to methods for therapy and diagnosis of cellularsenescence and immortalization.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The following is a general description of art relevant to the presentinvention. None is admitted to be prior art to the invention. Generally,this art relates to observations relating to cellular senescence, andtheories or hypothesis which explain such aging and the mechanisms bywhich cells escape senescence and immortalize.

Normal human somatic cells (e.g., fibroblasts, endothelial, andepithelial cells) display a finite replicative capacity of 50-100population doubling characterized by a cessation of proliferation inspite of the presence of abundant growth factors. This cessation ofreplication in vitro is variously referred to as cellular senescence orcellular aging, See, Goldstein, 249 Science 1129, 1990; Hayflick andMoorehead, 25 Exp. Cell Res. 585, 1961; Hayflick, ibid., 37:614, 1985;Ohno, 11 Mech. Aging Dev. 179, 1979; Ham and McKeehan, (1979) “Media andGrowth Requirements”, W. B. Jacoby and I. M. Pastan (eds), in: Methodsin Enzymology, Academic Press, NY, 58:44-93. The replicative life spanof cells is inversely proportional to the in vivo age of the donor(Martin et al., 23 Lab. Invest. 86, 1979; Goldstein et al., 64 Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 155, 1969; and Schneider and Mitsui, ibid.,73:3584, 1976), therefore cellular senescence is suggested to play animportant role in aging in vivo.

Cellular immortalization (the acquisition of unlimited replicativecapacity) may be thought of as an abnormal escape from cellularsenescence, Shay et al., 196 Exp. Cell Res. 33, 1991. Normal humansomatic cells appear to be mortal, i.e., have finite replicativepotential. In contrast, the germ line and malignant tumor cells areimmortal (have indefinite proliferative potential). Human cells culturedin vitro appear to require the aid of transforming viral oncoproteins tobecome immortal and even then the frequency of immortalization is 10⁻⁶to 10⁻⁷. Shay and Wright, 184 Exp. Cell Res. 109, 1989. A variety ofhypotheses have been advanced over the years to explain the causes ofcellular senescence. While examples of such hypotheses are providedbelow, there appears to be no consensus or universally acceptedhypothesis.

For example, the free radical theory of aging suggests that freeradical-mediated damage to DNA and other macromolecules is causative incritical loss of cell function (Harmon, 11 J. Gerontol. 298, 1956;Harmon, 16 J. Gerontol. 247, 1961). Harman says (Harman, 78 Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. 7124, 1981) “aging is largely due to free radical reactiondamage . . . .”

Waste-product accumulation theories propose that the progressiveaccumulation of pigmented inclusion bodies (frequently referred to aslipofuscin) in aging cells gradually interferes with normal cellfunction (Strehler, 1 Adv. Geront. Res. 343, 1964; Bourne, 40 Prog.Brain Res. 187, 1973; Hayflick, 20 Exp. Gerontol. 145, 1985).

The gradual somatic mutation theories propose that the progressiveaccumulation of genetic damage to somatic cells by radiation and othermeans impairs cell function and that without the genetic recombinationthat occurs, for instance, during meiosis in the germ line cells,somatic cells lack the ability to proliferate indefinitely (Burnet,“Intrinsic Mutagenesis—A Genetic Approach to Aging”, Wile, N.Y., 1976;Hayflick, 27 Exp. Gerontol. 363, 1992). Theories concerning geneticallyprogrammed senescence suggest that the expression of senescent-specificgenes actively inhibit cell proliferation (Martin et al., 74 Am. J.Pathol. 137, 1974; Goldstein, 249 Science 1129, 1990).

Smith and Whitney, 207 Science 82, 1980, discuss a mechanism forcellular aging and state that their data is:

“compatible with the process of genetically controlled terminaldifferentiation . . . . The gradual decrease in proliferation potentialwould also be compatible with a continuous build up of damage or errors,a process that has been theorized. However, the wide variability indoubling potentials, especially in mitotic pairs, suggests an unequalledpartitioning of damage or errors at division.”

Shay et al., 27 Experimental Gerontology 477, 1992, and 196 Exp. CellRes. 33, 1991 describe a two-stage model for human cell mortality toexplain the ability of Simian Virus 40 T-antigen to immortalize humancells. The mortality stage 1 mechanism (M1) is the target of certaintumor virus proteins, and an independent mortality stage 2 mechanism(M2) produces crisis and prevents these tumor viruses from directlyimmortalizing human cells. The authors utilized T-antigen driven by amouse mammary tumor virus promoter to cause reversible immortalizationof cells. The Simian Virus 40 T-antigen is said to extend thereplicative life span of human fibroblast by an additional 40-60%. Theauthors postulate that the M1 mechanism is overcome by T-antigen bindingto various cellular proteins, or inducing new activities to repress theM1 mortality mechanism. The M2 mechanism then causes cessation ofproliferation, even though the M1 mechanism is blocked. Immortality isachieved only when the M2 mortality mechanism is also disrupted.

It has also been proposed that the finite replicative capacity of cellsmay reflect the work of a “clock” liked to DNA synthesis in the telomere(end part) of the chromosomes. Olovnikov, 41 J. Theoretical Biology 181,1973, describes the theory of marginotomy to explain the limitations ofcell doubling potential in somatic cells. He states that an:

“informative oligonucleotide, built into DNA after a telogene andcontrolling synthesis of a repressor of differentiation, might serve asa means of counting mitosis performed in the course of morphogenesis.Marginotomic elimination of such an oligonucleotide would present anappropriate signal for the beginning of further differentiation.Lengthening of the telogene would increase the number of possiblemitoses in differentiation.”

Harley et al., 345 Nature 458, 1990, state that the amount and length oftelomeric DNA in human fibroblasts decreases as a function of serialpassage during aging in vitro, and possibly in vivo, but do not knowwhether this loss of DNA has a causal role in senescence. They alsostate:

“Tumour cells are also characterized by shortened telomeres andincreased frequency of aneuploidy, including telomeric associations. Ifloss of telomeric DNA ultimately causes cell-cycle arrest in normalcells, the final steps in this process may be blocked in immortalizedcells. Whereas normal cells with relatively long telomeres and asenescent phenotype may contain little or no telomerase activity, tumourcells with short telomeres may have significant telomerase activity.Telomerase may therefore be an effective target for anti-tumour drugs.

There are a number of possible mechanisms for loss of telomeric DNAduring ageing, including incomplete replication, degradation of termini(specific or nonspecific), and unequal recombination coupled toselection of cells with shorter telomeres. Two features of our data arerelevant to this question. First, the decrease in mean telomere lengthis about 50 bp per mean population doubling and, second, thedistribution does not change substantially with growth state or cellarrest. These data are most easily explained by incomplete copying ofthe template strands at their 3′ termini. But the absence of detailedinformation about the mode of replication or degree of recombination attelomeres means that none of these mechanisms can be ruled out. Furtherresearch is required to determine the mechanism of telomere shorteningin human fibroblasts and its significance to cellular senescence.”[Citations omitted.]

Hastie et al., 346 Nature 866, 1990, while discussing colon tumor cells,state that:

“[T]here is a reduction in the length of telomere repeat arrays relativeto the normal colonic mucosa from the same patient.

Firm figures are not available, but it is likely that the tissues of adeveloped fetus result from 20-50 cell divisions, whereas severalhundred or thousands of divisions have produced the colonic mucosa andblood cells of 60-year old individuals. Thus the degree of telomerereduction is more or less proportional to the number of cell divisions.It has been shown that the ends of Drosophila chromosomes without normaltelomeres reduce in size by 4 base pairs (bp) per cell division and thatthe ends of yeast chromosomes reduce by a similar degree in a mutantpresumed to lack telomerase function. If we assume the same rate ofreduction is occurring during somatic division in human tissues, then areduction in TRA by 14 kb would mean that 3,500 ancestral cell divisionslead to the production of cells in the blood of a 60-year oldindividual; using estimates of sperm telomere length found elsewhere weobtain a value of 1,000-2,000. These values compare favourably withthose postulated for mouse blood cells. Thus, we propose that telomeraseis indeed lacking in somatic tissues. In this regard it is of interestto note that in maize, broken chromosomes are only healed in sporophytic(zygotic) tissues and not in endosperm (terminally differentiated),suggesting that telomerase activity is lacking in the differentiatedtissues.” [Citations omitted.]

The authors propose that in some tumors telomerase is reactivated, asproposed for HeLa cells in culture, which are known to containtelomerase activity. But, they state:

“One alternative explanation for our observations is that in tumours thecells with shorter telomeres have a growth advantage over those withlarger telomeres, a situation described for vegetative cells oftetrahymena.” [Citations omitted.]

Harley, 256 Mutation Research 271, 1991, discusses observationsallegedly showing that telomeres of human somatic cells act as a mitoticclock shortening with age both in vitro and in vivo in a replicationdependent manner. He states:

“Telomerase activation may be a late, obligate event in immortalizationsince many transformed cells and tumour tissues have critically shorttelomeres. Thus, telomere length and telomerase activity appear to bemarkers of the replicative history and proliferative potential of cells;the intriguing possibility remains that telomere loss is a genetic timebomb and hence causally involved in cell senescence and immortalization.

Despite apparently stable telomere length in various tumour tissues ortransformed cell lines, this length was usually found to be shorter thanthose of the tissue of origin. These data suggest that telomerasebecomes activated as a late event in cell transformation, and that cellscould be viable (albeit genetically unstable) with short telomeresstably maintained by telomerase. If telomerase was constitutivelypresent in a small fraction of normal cells, and these were the oneswhich survived crisis or became transformed, we would expect to find agreater frequency of transformed cells with long telomeres.” [Citationsomitted.]

He proposes a hypothesis for human cell aging and transformation as “[a]semi-quantitative model in which telomeres and telomerase play a causalrole in cell senescence and cancer” and proposes a model for thishypothesis.

De Lange et al., 10 Molecular and Cellular Biology 518, 1990, generallydiscuss the structure of human chromosome ends or telomeres. They state:

“we do not know whether telomere reduction is strictly coupled tocellular proliferation. If the diminution results from incompletereplication of the telomere, such a coupling would be expected; however,other mechanisms, such as exonucleolytic degradation, may operateindependent of cell division. In any event, it is clear that themaintenance of telomeres is impaired in somatic cells. An obviouscandidate activity that may be reduced or lacking is telomerase. A humantelomerase activity that can add TTAGGG repeats to G-rich primers hasrecently been identified (G. Morin, personal communication).Interestingly, the activity was demonstrated in extracts of HeLa cells,which we found to have exceptionally long telomeres. Other cell typeshave not been tested yet, but such experiments could now establishwhether telomerase activity is (in part) responsible for the dynamics ofhuman chromosome ends.”

Starling et al., 18 Nucleic Acids Research 6881, 1990, indicate thatmice have large telomeres and discusses this length in relationship tohuman telomeres. They state:

“Recently it has been shown that there is reduction in TRA length withpassage number of human fibroblasts in vitro and that cells in asenescent population may lack telomeres at some ends altogether. Thus invitro, telomere loss may play a role in senescence, a scenario for whichthere is evidence in S. cerevisae and Tetrahymena. Some of the mice wehave been studying are old in mouse terms, one and a half years, yetthey still have TRA's greater than 30 kb in all tissues studied. Inhumans, telomeres shorten with age at a rate of 100 bp per year, hence,it is conceivable that the same is happening in the mouse, but theremoval of a few 100 bps of terminal DNA during its lifetime would notbe detectable.” [Citations omitted.]

D'Mello and Jazwinski, 173 J. Bacteriology 6709, 1991, state:

“We propose that during the life span of an organism, telomereshortening does not play a role in the normal aging process. However,mutations or epigenetic changes that affect the activity of thetelomerase, like any other genetic change, might affect the life span ofthe individual in which they occur.

In summary, the telomere shortening with age observed in human diploidfibroblasts may not be a universal phenomenon. Further studies arerequired to examine telomere length and telomerase activity not only indifferent cell types as they age but also in the same cell type indifferent organisms with differing life spans. This would indicatewhether telomere shortening plays a causal role in the senescence of aparticular cell type or organism.”

Hiyama et al., 83 Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 159, 1992, provide findings that“suggest that the reduction of telomeric repeats is related to theproliferative activity of neuroblastoma cells and seems to be a usefulindicator of the aggressiveness of neuroblastoma . . . . Although we donot know the mechanism of the reduction and the elongation of telomericrepeats in neuroblastoma, we can at least say that the length oftelomeric repeats may be related to the progression and/or regression ofneuroblastoma.”

Counter et al., 11 EMBO J. 1921, 1992, state “loss of telomeric DNAduring cell proliferation may play a role in ageing and cancer.” Theypropose that the expression of telomerase is one of the events requiredfor a cell to acquire immortality and note that:

This model may have direct relevance to tumourigenesis in vivo. Forexample, the finite lifespan of partially transformed (pre-immortal)cells which lack telomerase might explain the frequent regression oftumours after limited growth in vivo. In bypassing the checkpointrepresenting normal replicative senescence, transformation may confer anadditional 20-40 population doubling during which an additional ≈2 kbpof telomeric DNA is lost. Since 20∝40 doubling (10⁶-10¹² cells in aclonal population) potentially represents a wide range of tumour sizes,it is possible that many benign tumours may lack telomerase andnaturally regress when telomeres become critically shortened. We predictthat more aggressive, perhaps metastatic tumours would contain immortalcells which express telomerase. To test this hypothesis, we arecurrently attempting to detect telomerase in a variety of tumour tissuesand to correlate activity with proliferative potential. Anti-telomerasedrugs or mechanisms to repress telomerase expression could be effectiveagents against tumours which depend upon the enzyme for maintenance oftelomeres and continued cell growth.

Levy et al., 225 J. Mol. Biol. 951, 1992, state that:

“Although it has not been proven that telomere loss contributes tosenescence of multicellular organisms, several lines of evidence suggesta causal relationship may exist.

It is also possible that telomere loss with age is significant inhumans, but not in mice.” [Citations omitted.]

Windle and McGuire, 33 Proceedings of the American Association forCancer Research 594, 1992, discuss the role of telomeres and state that:

“These and other telomere studies point in a new direction regardingtherapeutic targets and strategies to combat cancer. If the cell canheal broken chromosomes preventing genomic disaster, then there may be away to facilitate or artificially create this process. This could evenprovide a preventive means of stopping cancer which could beparticularly applicable in high risk patients. The difference intelomere length in normal versus tumor cells also suggests a strategywhere the loss of telomeres is accelerated. Those cells with theshortest telomeres, such as those of tumor metastasis would be the mostsusceptible.”

Goldstein, 249 Science 1129, 1990, discusses various theories ofcellular senescence including that of attrition of telomeres. He states:

“However, such a mechanism is not easily reconciled with the dominanceof senescent HDF over young HDF in fusion hybrids, particularly inshort-term heterokaryons. One could again invoke the concept ofdependence and the RAD9 gene example, such that complete loss of one ora few telomeres leads to the elaboration of a negative signal thatprevents initiation of DNA synthesis, thereby mimicking thedifferentiated state. This idea, although speculative, would not onlyexplain senescent replicative arrest but also the chromosomalaberrations observed in senescent HDS that would specifically ensueafter loss of telomeres.” [Citations omitted.]

The role of telomere loss in cancer is further discussed by Jankovic etal. and Hastie et al., both at 350 Nature 1991, in which Jankovicindicates that telomere shortening is unlikely to significantlyinfluence carcinogenesis in men and mice. Hastie et al. agree that iftelomere reduction does indeed reflect cell turnover, this phenomenon isunlikely to play a role in pediatric tumors, and those of the centralnervous system. Hastie et al., however, feel “our most original andinteresting conclusion was that telomere loss may reflect the number ofcell division in a tissue history, constituting a type of clock.”

Kipling and Cooke, 1 Human Molecular Genetics 3, 1992, state:

“It has been known for some years that telomeres in human germline cells(e.g. sperm) are longer than those in somatic tissue such as blood. Oneproposed explanation for this is the absence of telomere repeat addition(i.e. absence of telomerase activity) in somatic cells. If so,incomplete end replication would be expected to result in theprogressive loss of terminal repeats as somatic cells undergo successiverounds of division. This is indeed what appears to happen in vivo forhumans, with both blood and skin cells showing shorter telomeres withincreasing donor age, and telomere loss may contribute to the chromosomeaberrations typically seen in senescent cells. Senescence and themeasurement of cellular time is an intriguingly complex subject and itwill be interesting to see to what extent telomere shortening has acausal role. The large telomeres possessed by both young and old micewould seem to preclude a simple relationship between telomere loss andageing, but more elaborate schemes cannot be ruled out.” [Citationsomitted.]

Greider, 12 BioEssays 363, 1990, provides a review of the relationshipbetween telomeres, telomerase, and senescence. She indicates thattelomerase contains an RNA component which provides a template fortelomere repeat synthesis. She notes that an oligonucleotide “which iscomplementary to the RNA up to and including the CAACCCCAA sequence,competes with d(TTGGGG)n primers and inhibits telomerase in vitro”(citing Greider and Blackburn, 337 Nature 331, 1989). She also describesexperiments which she believes “provide direct evidence that telomeraseis involved in telomere synthesis in vivo.” She goes on to state:

“Telomeric restriction fragments in many transformed cell lines are muchshorter than those in somatic cells. In addition, telomere length intumor tissues is significantly shorter than in the adjacent non-tumortissue. When transformed cell lines are passaged in vitro there is nochange in telomere length. Thus if untransformed cells lack the abilityto maintain a telomere length equilibrium, most transformed cells appearto regain it and to reset the equilibrium telomere length to a sizeshorter than seen in most tissues in vivo. The simplest interpretationof these data is that enzymes, such as telomerase, involved inmaintaining telomere length may be required for growth of transformedcells and not required for normal somatic cell viability. This suggeststhat telomerase may be a good target for anti-tumor drugs.” [Citationsomitted.]

Blackburn, 350 Nature 569, 1991, discusses the potential for drug actionat telomeres stating:

“The G-rich strand of the telomere is the only essential chromosomal DNAsequence known to be synthesized by the copying of a separate RNAsequence. This unique mode of synthesis, and the special structure andbehavior of telomeric DNA, suggest that telomere synthesis could be atarget for selective drug action. Because telomerase activity seems tobe essential for protozoans or yeast, but not apparently for mammaliansomatic cells, I propose that telomerase should be explored as a targetfor drugs against eukaryotic pathogenic or parasitic microorganisms,such as parasitic protozoans or pathogenic yeasts. A drug that bindstelomerase selectively, either through its reverse-transcriptase or DNAsubstrate-binding properties, should selectively act against prolongedmaintenance of the dividing lower eukaryote, but not impair themammalian host over the short term, because telomerase activity in itssomatic cells may normally be low or absent. Obvious classes of drugs toinvestigate are those directed specifically against reversetranscriptases as opposed to other DNA or RNA polymerases, and drugsthat would bind telomeric DNA itself. These could include drugs thatselectively bind the G°G base-paired forms of the G-rich strandprotrusions at the chromosome termini, or agents which stabilize aninappropriate G°G base-paired form, preventing it from adopting astructure necessary for proper function in vivo. Telomeres have beendescribed as the Achilles heel of chromosomes: perhaps it is there thatdrug strategies should now be aimed.” [Citations omitted.]

Lundblad and Blackburn, 73 Cell 347, 1993, discuss alternative pathwaysfor maintainance of yeast telomers, and state that:

“ . . . the work presented in this paper demonstrates that a defect intelomere replication need not result in the death of all cells in apopulation, suggesting that telomere loss and its relationship tomammalian cellular senescence may have to be examined further.”

Other review articles concerning telomeres include Blackburn andSzostak, 53 Ann. Rev. Biochem. 163, 1984; Blackburn, 350 Nature 569,1991; Greider, 67 Cell 645, 1991, and Moyzis 265 Scientific American 48,1991. Relevant articles on various aspects of telomeres include Cookeand Smith, Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology Vol. LI,pp. 213-219; Morin, 59 Cell 521, 1989; Blackburn et al., 31 Genome 553,1989; Szostak, 337 Nature 303, 1989; Gall, 344 Nature 108, 1990;Henderson et al., 29 Biochemistry 732, 1990; Gottschling et al., 63 Cell751, 1990; Harrington and Grieder, 353 Nature 451, 1991; Muller et al.,67 Cell 815, 1991; Yu and Blackburn, 67 Cell 823, 1991; and Gray et al.,67 Cell 807, 1991. Other articles or discussions of some relevanceinclude Lundblad and Szostak, 57 Cell 633, 1989; and Yu et al., 344Nature 126, 1990.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention concerns methods for therapy and diagnosis of cellularsenescence and immortalization utilizing techniques associated withcontrol of telomere length and telomerase activity. Therapeuticstrategies of this invention include reducing the rate or absoluteamount of telomere repeat length loss or increasing the telomere repeatlength during cell proliferation, thereby providing for the postponementof cellular senescence and reducing the level of chromosomal fusions andother chromosomal aberrations. In addition, inhibition of telomeraseactivity in vivo or in vitro may be used to control diseases associatedwith cell immortality, such as neoplasia, and pathogenic parasites.

Applicant has determined that the inhibition of telomere shortening in acell in vitro is causally related to increasing the length of thereplicative lifespan of that cell. Applicant has also determined thatinhibition of telomerase activity in a cell in vitro is causally relatedto reducing the ability of that cell to proliferate in an immortalmanner. Thus, applicant is the first to provide data which clearlyindicates that inhibition of telomere shortening in vivo or in vitro,and that inhibition of telomerase activity in vivo or in vitro, istherapeutically beneficial. Prior to applicant's experiments, asindicated above, there was no consensus by those in the art that onecould predict that such experiments would provide the data observed byapplicant, or that such manipulations would have therapeutic utility.

The invention also concerns the determination of cellular status bydiagnostic techniques that analyze telomere length and telomeraseactivity, as a diagnostic of cellular capacity for proliferation. Assaysfor telomere length are performed to provide useful information on therelative age and remaining proliferative capability of a wide variety ofcell types in numerous tissues. Sequences are also described from thetelomeres of budding yeasts which are highly variable from strain tostrain and provide sequences for oligonucleotide probes that wouldenable the rapid identification of yeast strains, and in the case ofhuman and veterinary pathogens, the diagnosis of the strain of thepathogen.

Telomerase activity and the presence of the enzyme is used as a markerfor diagnosing and staging neoplasia and detecting pathogenic parasites.Applicant's experiments have, for the first time, determined acorrelation between telomerase activity and the tumor cell phenotype, aswell as a correlation between telomere length and the in vivo agedstatus of cells. As noted above, there was no consensus in the art thatone could predict that such a relationship existed. In contrast,applicant has defined this relationship, and thus has now defined usefuldiagnostic tools by which to determine useful clinical data. Such datacan be used to define a therapeutic protocol, or the futility of such aprotocol.

Thus, in a first aspect, the invention features methods for thetreatment of a condition associated with cellular senescence orincreased rate of proliferation of a cell (e.g., telomere repeat lossassociated with cell proliferation in the absence of telomerase). Afirst method involves administering to the cell a therapeuticallyeffective amount of an agent active to reduce loss of telomeric repeatsduring its proliferation. Such therapeutics may be especially applicableto conditions of increased rate of cell proliferation.

By “increased rate of proliferation” of a cell is meant that the cellhas a higher rate of cell division compared to normal cells of that celltype, or compared to normal cells within other individuals of that celltype. Examples of such cells include the CD4⁺ cells of HIV-infectedindividuals (see example below), connective tissue fibroblastsassociated with degenerative joint diseases, age-related maculardegeneration, astrocytes associated with Alzheimer's Disease andendothelial cells associated with atherosclerosis (see example below).In each case, one particular type of cell or a group of cells is foundto be replicating at an increased level compared to surrounding cells inthose tissues, or compared to normal individuals, e.g., individuals notinfected with the HIV virus. Thus, the invention features administeringto those cells an agent which reduces loss of telomere length in thosecells while they proliferate. The agent itself need not slow theproliferation process, but rather allow that proliferation process tocontinue for more cell divisions than would be observed in the absenceof the agent. The agent may also be useful to slow telomere repeat lossoccurring during normal aging (wherein the cells are proliferating at anormal rate and undergoing senescence late in life), and for reducingtelomere repeat loss while expanding cell number ex vivo for cell-basedtherapies, e.g., bone marrow transplantation following gene therapy.

As described herein, useful agents can be readily identified by those ofordinary skill in the art using routine screening procedures. Forexample, a particular cell having a known telomere length is chosen andallowed to proliferate, and the length of telomere is measured duringproliferation. Agents which are shown to reduce the loss of telomerelength during such proliferation are useful in this invention.Particular examples of such agents are provided below. For example,oligonucleotides which are able to promote synthesis of DNA at thetelomere ends are useful in this invention. In addition, telomerase maybe added to a cell either by gene therapy techniques, or by of theenzyme or its equivalent into a cell administration, e.g., by injectionor lipojection.

A second method for the treatment of cellular senescence involves theuse of an agent to derepress telomerase in cells where the enzyme isnormally repressed. Telomerase activity is not detectable in any normalhuman somatic cells, but is detectable in cells that have abnormallyreactivated the enzyme during the transformation of a normal cell intoan immortal tumor cell. Telomerase activity may therefore be appropriateonly in germ line cells and some stem cell populations (though there iscurrently no evidence of the latter in human tissues). Since the loss oftelomeric repeats leading to senescence in somatic cells is occuring dueto the absence of adequate telomerase activity, agents that have theeffect of activating telomerase would have the effect of adding arraysof telomeric repeats to telomeres, thereby imparting to mortal somaticcells increased replicative capacity, and imparting to senescent cellsthe ability to proliferate and appropriately exit the cell cycle (in theabsence of growth factor stimulation with associated appropriateregulation of cell cycle-linked genes typically inappropriatelyexpressed in senescence e.g., collagenase, urokinase, and other secretedproteases and protease inhibitors). Such factors to derepress telomerasemay be administered transiently or chronically to increase telomerelength, and then removed, thereby allowing the somatic cells to againrepress the expression of the enzyme utilizing the natural mechanisms ofrepression.

Such activators of telomerase may be found by screening techniquesutilizing human cells that have the M1 mechanism of senescence abrogatedby means of the expression of SV40 T-antigen. Such cells when grown tocrisis, wherein the M2 mechanism is preventing their growth, willproliferate in response to agents that derepress telomerase. Suchactivity can be scored as the incorporation of radiolabeled nucleotidesor proliferating clones can be selected for in a colony forming assay.

Such activators of telomerase would be useful as therapeutic agents toforestall and reverse cellular senescence, including but not limited toconditions associated with cellular senescence, e.g., (a) cells withreplicative capacity in the central nervous system, includingastrocytes, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts which play a role in suchage-related diseases as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease,Huntington's disease, and stroke, (b) cells with finite replicativecapacity in the integument, including fibroblasts, sebaceous glandcells, melanocytes, keratinocytes, Langerhan's cells, and hair folliclecells which may play a role in age-related diseases of the integumentsuch as dermal atrophy, elastolysis and skin wrinkling, sebaceous glandhyperplasia, senile lentigo, graying of hair and hair loss, chronic skinulcers, and age-related impairment of wound healing, (c) cells withfinite replicative capacity in the articular cartilage, such aschondrocytes and lacunal and synovial fibroblasts which play a role indegenerative joint disease, (d) cells with finite replicative capacityin the bone, such as osteoblasts and osteoprogenitor cells which play arole in osteoporosis, (e) cells with finite replicative capacity in theimmune system such as B and T lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils,eosinophils, basophils, NK cells and their respective progenitors, whichmay play a role in age-related immune system impairment, (f) cells witha finite replicative capacity in the vascular system includingendothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and adventitial fibroblastswhich may play a role in age-related diseases of the vascular systemincluding atherosclerosis, calcification, thrombosis, and aneurysms, and(g) cells with a finite replicative capacity in the eye such aspigmented epithelium and vascular endothelial cells which may play animportant role in age-related macular degeneration.

In a second aspect, the invention features a method for treatment of acondition associated with an elevated level of telomerase activitywithin a cell. The method involves administering to that cell atherapeutically effective amount of an inhibitor of telomerase activity.

The level of telomerase activity can be measured as described below, orby any other existing methods or equivalent methods. By “elevated level”of such activity is meant that the absolute level of telomerase activityin the particular cell is elevated compared to normal cells in thatindividual, or compared to normal cells in other individuals notsuffering from the condition. Examples of such conditions includecancerous condition. Examples of such associated with the presence ofcells which are not normally present in that individual, such asprotozoan parasites or opportunistic pathogens, which require telomeraseactivity for their continued replication. Administration of an inhibitorcan be achieved by any desired means well known to those of ordinaryskill in the art.

In addition, the term “therapeutically effective amount” of an inhibitoris a well recognized phrase. The amount actually applied will bedependent upon the individual or animal to which treatment is to beapplied, and will preferably be an optimized amount such that aninhibitory effect is achieved without significant side-effects (to theextent that those can be avoided by use of the inhibitor). That is, ifeffective inhibition can be achieved with no side-effects with theinhibitor at a certain concentration, that concentration should be usedas opposed to a higher concentration at which side-effects may becomeevident. If side-effects are unavoidable, however, the minimum amount ofinhibitor that is necessary to achieve the inhibition desired may haveto be used.

By “inhibitor” is simply meant any reagent, drug or chemical which isable to inhibit a telomerase activity in vitro or in vivo. Suchinhibitors can be readily identified using standard screening protocolsin which a cellular extract or other preparation having telomeraseactivity is placed in contact with a potential inhibitor, and the levelof telomerase activity measured in the presence or absence of theinhibitor, or in the presence of varying amounts of inhibitor. In thisway, not only can useful inhibitors be identified, but the optimum levelof such an inhibitor can be determined in vitro for further testing invivo.

One example of a suitable telomerase inhibitor assay is carried out in96-well microtiter plates. One microtiter plate is used to makedilutions of the test compounds, while another plate is used for theactual assay. Duplicate reactions of each sample are performed. Amixture is made containing the appropriate amount of buffer, templateoligonucleotide, and Tetrahymena or human telomerase extract for thenumber of the samples to be tested, and aliquots are placed in the assayplate. The test compounds are added individually and the plates arepre-incubated at 30° C. ³²P-dGTP is then added and the reaction allowedto proceed for 10 minutes at 30° C. The total volume of each reaction is10 μl. The reaction is then terminated by addition of Tris and EDTA, andhalf the volume (5 μl) spotted onto DE81 filter paper. The samples areallowed to air dry, and the filter paper is rinsed in 0.5 M NaPhosphateseveral times to wash away the unincorporated labeled nucleotide. Afterdrying, the filter paper is exposed to a phosphor imaging plate and theamount of signal quantitated. By comparing the amount of signal for eachof the test samples to control samples, the percent of inhibition can bedetermined.

In addition, a large number of potentially useful inhibitors can bescreened in a single test, since it is inhibition of telomerase activitythat is desired. Thus, if a panel of 1,000 inhibitors is to be screened,all 1,000 inhibitors can potentially be placed into microtiter wells. Ifsuch an inhibitor is discovered, then the pool of 1,000 can besubdivided into 10 pools of 100 and the process repeated until anindividual inhibitor is identified. As discussed herein, oneparticularly useful set of inhibitors includes oligonucleotides whichare able to either bind with the RNA present in telomerase or able toprevent binding of that RNA to its DNA target or one of the telomeraseprotein components. Even more preferred are those oligonucleotides whichcause inactivation or cleavage of the RNA present in a telomerase. Thatis, the oligonucleotide is chemically modified or has enzyme activitywhich causes such cleavage. The above screening may include screening ofa pool of many different such oligonucleotide sequences.

In addition, a large number of potentially useful compounds can bescreened in extracts from natural products. Sources of such extracts canbe from a large number of species of fungi, actinomyces, algae,protozoa, plants, and bacteria. Those extracts showing inhibitoryactivity can then be analyzed to isolate the active molecule.

In related aspects, the invention features pharmaceutical compositionswhich include therapeutically effective amounts of the inhibitors oragents described above, in pharmaceutically acceptable buffers much asdescribed below. These pharmaceutical compositions may include one ormore of these inhibitors or agents, and be co-administered with otherdrugs. For example, AZT is commonly used for treatment of HIV, and maybe co-administered with an inhibitor or agent of the present invention.

In a related aspect, the invention features a method for extending theability of a cell to replicate. In this method, a replication extendingamount of an agent which is active to reduce loss of telomere lengthwithin the cell is provided during cell replication. As will be evidentto those of ordinary skill in the art, this agent is similar to thatuseful for treatment of a condition associated with an increased rate ofproliferation of a cell. However, this method is useful for thetreatment of individuals not suffering from any particular condition,but in which one or more cell types are limiting in that patient, andwhose life can be extended by extending the ability of those cells tocontinue replication. That is, the agent is added to delay the onset ofcell senescence characterized by the inability of that cell to replicatefurther in an individual. One example of such a group of cells includeslymphocytes present in patients suffering from Downs Syndrome (althoughtreatment of such cells may also be useful in individuals not identifiedas suffering from any particular condition or disease, but simplyrecognizing that one or more cells, or collections of cells are becominglimiting in the life span of that individual).

It is notable that administration of such inhibitors or agents is notexpected to be detrimental to any particular individual. However, shouldgene therapy be used to introduce a telomerase into any particular cellpopulation, or other means be used to reversibly de-repress telomeraseactivity in somatic cells, care should be taken to ensure that theactivity of that telomerase is carefully regulated, for example, by useof a promoter which can be regulated by the nutrition of the patient.Thus, for example, the promoter may only be activated when the patienteats a particular nutrient, and is otherwise inactive. In this way,should the cell population become malignant, that individual may readilyinactivate telomerase of the cell and cause it to become mortal simplyby no longer eating that nutrient.

In a further aspect, the invention features a method for diagnosis of acondition in a patient associated with an elevated level of telomeraseactivity within a cell. The method involves determining the presence oramount of telomerase within the cells in that patient.

In yet another aspect, the invention features a method for diagnosis ofa condition associated with an increased rate of proliferation in thatcell in an individual. Specifically, the method involves determining thelength of telomeres within the cell.

The various conditions for which diagnosis is possible are describedabove. As will be exemplified below, many methods exist for measuringthe presence or amount of telomerase within a cell in a patient, and fordetermining the length of telomeres within the cell. It will be evidentthat the presence or amount of telomerase may be determined within anindividual cell, and for any particular telomerase activity (whether itbe caused by one particular enzyme or a plurality of enzymes). Those inthe art can readily formulate antibodies or their equivalent todistinguish between each type of telomerase present within a cell, orwithin an individual. In addition, the length of telomeres can bedetermined as an average length, or as a range of lengths much asdescribed below. Each of these measurements will give preciseinformation regarding the status of any particular individual.

Thus, applicant's invention has two prongs—a diagnostic and atherapeutic prong. These will now be discussed in detail.

The therapeutic prong of the invention is related to the now clearobservation that the ability of a cell to remain immortal lies in theability of that cell to maintain or increase the telomere length ofchromosomes within that cell. Such a telomere length can be maintainedby the presence of sufficient activity of telomerase, or an equivalentenzyme, within the cell. Thus, therapeutic approaches to reducing thepotential of a cell to remain immortal focus on the inhibition oftelomerase activity within those cells in which it is desirable to causecell death. Examples of such cells include cancerous cells, which areone example of somatic cells which have regained the ability to expresstelomerase, and have become immortal. Applicant has now shown that suchcells can be made mortal once more by inhibition of telomerase activity.As such, inhibition can be achieved in a multitude of ways including, asillustrated below, the use of oligonucleotides which, in some manner,block the ability of telomerase to extend telomeres in vivo.

Thus, oligonucleotides can be designed either to bind to a telomere (toblock the ability of telomerase to bind to that telomere, and therebyextend that telomere), or to bind to the resident oligonucleotide (RNA)present in telomerase to thereby block telomerase activity on anynucleic acid (telomere). Such oligonucleotides may be formed fromnaturally occurring nucleotides, or may include modified nucleotides toeither increase the stability of the therapeutic agent, or causepermanent inactivation of the telomerase, e.g., the positioning of achain terminating nucleotide at the 3′ end of the molecule of anucleotide with a reactive group capable of forming a covalent bond withtelomerase. Such molecules may also include ribozyme sequences. Inaddition, non-oligonucleotide based therapies can be readily devised byscreening for those molecules which have an ability to inhibittelomerase activity in vitro, and then using those molecules in vivo.Such a screen is readily performed and will provide a large number ofuseful therapeutic molecules. These molecules may be used for treatmentof cancers, of any type, including solid tumors and leukemias (includingthose in which cells are immortalized, including: apudoma, choristoma,branchioma, malignant carcinoid syndrome, carcinoid heart disease,carcinoma (e.g., Walker, basal cell, basosquamous, Brown-Pearce, ductal,Ehrlich tumor, in situ, Krebs 2, merkel cell, mucinous, non-small celllung, oat cell, papillary, scirrhous, bronchiolar, bronchogenic,squamous cell, and transitional cell), histiocytic disorders, leukemia(e.g., b-cell, mixed-cell, null-cell, T-cell, T-cell chronic,HTLV-II-associated, lyphocytic acute, lymphocytic chronic, mast-cell,and myeloid), histiocytosis malignant, Hodgkin's disease,immunoproliferative small, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, plasmacytoma,reticuloendotheliosis, melanoma, chondroblastoma, chondroma,chondrosarcoma, fibroma, fibrosarcoma, giant cell tumors, histiocytoma,lipoma, liposarcoma, mesothelioma, myxoma, myxosarcoma, osteoma,osteosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovioma, adenofibroma, adenolymphoma,carcinosarcoma, chordoma, craniopharyngioma, dysgerminoma, hamartoma,mesenchymoma, mesonephroma, myosarcoma, ameloblastoma, cementoma,odontoma, teratoma, thymoma, trophoblastic tumor, adenocarcinoma,adenoma, cholangioma, cholesteatoma, cylindroma, cystadenocarcinoma,cystadenoma, granulosa cell tumor, gynandroblastoma, hepatoma,hidradenoma, islet cell tumor, leydig cell tumor, papilloma, sertolicell tumor, theca cell tumor, leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, myoblastoma,myoma, myosarcoma, rhabdomyoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, ependymoma,ganglioneuroma, glioma, medulloblastoma, meningioma, neurilemmoma,neuroblastoma, neuroepithelioma, neurofibroma, neuroma, paraganglioma,paraganglioma nonchromaffin, angiokeratoma, angiolymphoid hyperplasiawith eosinophilia, angioma sclerosing, angiomatosis, glomangioma,hemangioendothelioma, hemangioma, hemangiopericytoma, hemangiosarcoma,lymphangioma, lymphangiomyoma, lymphangiosarcoma, pinealoma,carcinosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, cystosarcomaphyllodes, fibrosarcoma,hemangiosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, leukosarcoma, liposarcoma,lymphangiosarcoma, myosarcoma, myxosarcoma, ovarian carcinoma,rhabdomyosarcoma, sarcoma (e.g., Ewing's, experimental, Kaposi's, andmast-cell), neoplasms (e.g., bone, breast, digestive system, colorectal,liver, pancreatic, pituitary, testicular, orbital, head and neck,central nervous system, acoustic, pelvic, respiratory tract, andurogenital), neurofibromatosis, and cervical dysplasia), and fortreatment of other conditions in which cells have become immortalized.

Applicant has also determined that it is important to slow the loss oftelomere sequences, in particular, cells in association with certaindiseases (although such treatment is not limited to this, and can beused in normal aging and ex vivo treatments). For example, some diseasesare manifest by the abnormally fast rate of proliferation of one or moreparticular groups of cells. Applicant has determined that it is thesenescence of those groups of cells at an abnormally early age (comparedto the age of the patient), that eventually leads to death of thatpatient. One example of such a disease is AIDS, in which death is causedby the early senescence of CD4⁺ cells. It is important to note that suchcells age, not because of abnormal loss of telomere sequences (althoughthis may be a factor), but rather because the replicative rate of theCD4⁺ cells is increased such that telomere attrition is caused at agreater rate than normal for that group of cells. Thus, applicantprovides therapeutic agents which can be used for treatment of suchdiseases, and also provides a related diagnostic procedure by whichsimilar diseases can be detected so that appropriate therapeuticprotocols can be devised and followed.

Specifically, the loss of telomeres within any particular cellpopulation can be reduced by provision of an oligonucleotide whichreduces the extent of telomere attrition during cell division, and thusincreases the number of cell divisions that may occur before a cellbecomes senescent. Other reagents, for example, telomerase, may beprovided within a cell in order to reduce telomere loss, or to make thatcell immortal. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize thatother enzymatic activities may be used to enhance the lengthening oftelomeres within such cells, for example, by providing certain viralsequences which activate telomerase or can otherwise function tosynthesize telomere sequences within a cell. In addition, equivalentsuch molecules, or other molecules may be readily screened to determinethose that will reduce loss of telomeres. Such screens may occur invitro, and the therapeutic agents discovered by such screening utilizedin the above method in vivo.

Other therapeutic treatments relate to the finding of unusual telomericDNA sequences in a group of fungi, specifically a group of buddingyeasts that includes some pathogens—Candida albicans, Candida tropicalisand Candida oaratrorpicalis—as well as nonpathogenic fungi. Theseresults are described in more detail below. Drugs or chemical agents canbe used to specifically exploit the unusual nature of the telomeric DNAof fungi. This includes the introduction of antisense polynucleotidesspecific to the telomeric repeat DNA sequences, in order to blocktelomere synthesis in these and any related pathogens. Such a block willlead to fungal death.

This approach is advantageous because of the unusual nature of thetelomeric DNA in these fungi. The unusually high DNA sequence complexityof the telomeric repeats of these fungi provides specificity, andpotential for minimal side effects, of the antifungal agent or theantisense DNA or RNA.

Agents that are potentially useful antifungal agents include: AZT, d4T,ddI, ddC, and ddA. The telomere synthesis of these fungi is expected toshow differential inhibition to these drugs, and in some cases to bemore sensitive than the telomere synthesis in the human or other animalor plant host cells.

We performed a preliminary test of the use of antisense techniques inliving fungal cells. A stretch of 40 bp of telomeric DNA sequence,imbedded in a conserved sequence flanking a region of Candida albicanschromosomal DNA, was introduced on a circular molecule into Candidaalbicans cells. The transformed cells had high copy numbers of theintroduced telomeric DNA sequence. 10% of the transformants exhibitedgreatly (˜3-fold) increased length of telomeric DNA. This resultindicates that telomeric DNA can be modulated in vivo by introduction oftelomeric sequence polynucleotides into cells. This demonstrates theneed to test a particular oligonucleotide to ensure that it has thedesired activity.

With regard to diagnostic procedures, examples of such procedures becomeevident from the discussion above with regard to therapy. Applicant hasdetermined that the length of the telomere is indicative of the lifeexpectancy of a cell containing that telomere, and of an individualcontaining that cell. Thus, the length of a telomere is directlycorrelated to the life span of an individual cell. As discussed above,certain populations of cells may lose telomeres at a greater rate thanthe other cells within an individual, and those cells may thus becomeage-limiting within an individual organism. However, diagnosticprocedures can now be developed (as described herein) which can be usedto indicate the potential life span of any individual cell type, and tofollow telomere loss so that a revised estimate to that life span can bemade with time.

In certain diseases, for example, the AIDS disease discussed above, itwould, of course, be important to follow the telomere length in CD4⁺cells. In addition, the recognition that CD4⁺ cells are limiting in suchindividuals allows a therapeutic protocol to be devised in which CD4⁺cells can be removed from the individual at an early age when AIDS isfirst detected, stored in a bank, and then reintroduced into theindividual at a later age when that individual no longer has therequired CD4⁺ cells available. These cells can be expanded in number inthe presence of agents which slow telomere repeat loss, e.g., C-richtelomeric oligonucleotides or agents to transiently de-represstelomerase to ensure that cells re-administered to the individual havemaximum replicative capacity. Thus, an individual's life can be extendedby a protocol involving continued administration of that individual'slimiting cells at appropriate time points. These appropriate points canbe determined by following CD4⁺ cell senescence, or by determining thelength of telomeres within such CD4⁺ cells (as an indication of whenthose cells will become senescent). In the case of AIDS, there may bewaves of senescent telomere length in peripheral blood lymphocytes withbone marrow ten cells still having replicative capacity. In this way,rather than wait until a cell becomes senescent (and thereby putting anindividual at risk of death) telomere length may be followed until thelength is reduced below that determined to be pre-senescent, and therebythe timing of administration of new CD4⁺ cells or colony stimulatingfactors can be optimized.

Thus, the diagnostic procedures of this invention include procedures inwhich telomere length in different cell populations is measured todetermine whether any particular cell population is limiting in the lifespan of an individual, and then determining a therapeutic protocol toinsure that such cells are no longer limiting to that individual. Inaddition, such cell populations may be specifically targeted by specificdrug administration to insure that telomere length loss is reduced, asdiscussed above.

Other diagnostic procedures include measurement of telomerase activityas an indication of the presence of immortal cells within an individual.A more precise measurement of such immortality is the presence of thetelomerase enzyme itself. Such an enzyme can be readily detected usingstandard procedures, including assay of telomerase activities, but alsoby use of antibodies to telomerase, or by use of oligonucleotides thathybridize to the nucleic acid (template RNA) present in telomerase, orDNA or RNA probes for the mRNAs of telomerase proteins.Immunohistochemical and insitu hybridization techniques allow theprecise identification of telomerase positive cells in histologicalspecimens for diagnostic and prognostic tests. The presence oftelomerase is indicative of cells which are immortal and frequentlymetastatic, and such a diagnostic allows pinpointing of such metastaticcells, much as CD44 is alleged to do so. See, Leff, 3(217) BioWorldToday 1, 3, 1992.

It is evident that the diagnostic procedures of the present inventionprovide the first real method for determining how far certainindividuals have progressed in a certain disease. For example, in theAIDS disease, this is the first methodology which allows priordetermination of the time at which an HIV positive individual willbecome immunocompromised. This information is useful for determining thetiming of drug administration, such as AZT administration, and will aidin development of new drug regimens or therapies. In addition, thedetermination of the optimum timing of administration of certain drugswill reduce the cost of treating an individual, reduce the opportunityfor the drug becoming toxic to the individual, and reduce the potentialfor the individual developing resistance to such a drug.

In other related aspects, the invention features a method for treatmentof a disease or condition associated with cell senescence, byadministering a therapeutically effective amount of an agent active toderepress telomerase in senescing cells. A related aspect involvesscreening for a telomerase derepression agent by contacting a potentialagent with a cell lacking telomerase activity, and determining whetherthe agent increases the level of telomerase activity, e.g., by using acell expressing an inducible T antigen. Such an assay allows rapidscreening of agents which are present in combinatorial libraries, orknown to be carcinogens.

Applicant recognizes that known agents may be useful in treatment ofcancers since they are active at telomerase itself, or at the geneexpressing the telomerase. Thus, such agents can be identified in thisinvention as useful in the treatment of diseases or conditions for whichthey were not previously known to be efficacious. Indeed, agents whichwere previously thought to lack utility because they have little if anyeffect on cell viability after only 24-48 hours of treatment, can beshown to have utility if they are active on telomerase in vivo, and thusaffect cell viability only after several cell divisions.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from theclaims.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The drawings will first briefly be described.

Drawings

FIGS. 1-3 are graphs where the cell type and/or the culture conditionsare varied, plotting days in culture (horizontal axis) length versuscell number (vertical axis).

FIG. 4 is a linear plot of mean terminal restriction fragment (TRF)length versus PDL for human umbilical vein endothelial cell cultures.The plot had a slope (m) of −190±10 bp/PD, r=−0.98, P=0.01.

FIG. 5 is a plot of mean TRF of endothelial cell cultures from humaniliac arteries and iliac veins as a function of donor age. Parametersfor iliac arteries are: m=−102 bp/yr, r=−0.98, P=0.01 and for iliacveins are: m=−42 bp/yr, r=−0.71, P=0.14.

FIG. 6 is a plot of decrease in mean TRF of medial tissue from theaortic arch, abdominal aorta, iliac artery and iliac vein as a functionof donor age. Parameters for linear plot are: m=−47 bp/yr, r=−0.85,P=0.05.

FIG. 7 is a plot of mean TRF length from PBLs plotted as a function ofdonor age. The slope of the linear regression line (−41±2.6 bp/y) issignificantly different from 0 (p<0.00005).

FIG. 8 is a plot showing accelerated telomere loss in Down's Syndrome(DS) patients. Genomic DNA isolated from PBLs of DS patients wasanalyzed as described in FIG. 7. Mean TRF length is shown as a functionof donor age, for DS patients (open squares), and age-matched controls(solid squares). The slope of the linear regression lines (−133±15 bp/y,trisomy, vs −43±7.7, normals) are significantly different (p<0.0005).

FIG. 9 is a plot showing decrease in mean TRF length in culturedT-lymphocytes as a function of population doubling (shown for DNA fromtwo normal individuals). Donor ages for these cells were not available.The slopes of these lines (−80±19 (°) and −102±5.4 (O) bp/doubling) aresignificantly different from zero (p<0.0001). Mean TRF length atterminal passage from a third donor for which multiple passages were notavailable is also shown (upsidedown V-symbol).

FIG. 10 is a copy of an autoradiogram showing TRF lengths of ovariancarcinoma and control normal cells. DNA from cells in ascitic fluid from2 patients (cas and wad) was digested with HinfI and RsaI separated byelectrophoresis, hybridized to the telomeric probe ³²P(CCCTAA)₃,stringently washed and autoradiographed. The cells of ascitic fluid from7 other patients were separated into adhering normal cells (N) andtumour clumps in the media (T). The DNA was extracted and run as above.DNA from patient was obtained from both the first and forthparacentesis. Tumour cells from patients were cultured and DNA wasobtained at the respected population doubling (pd).

FIG. 11 shows telomerase activity in ovarian carcinoma cells. S100extracts from the previously studied transformant cell line 293 CSH, thetumor cell line HEY, purified tumour cell population and cells directlyfrom the ascitic fluid from patients were incubated with the telomereprimer (TTAGGG)₃ in the presence of dATP and TTP, ³²PdGTP and buffer.The reaction products were separated on a sequencing gel and exposed toa PhosphoImager screen. Either single (1) or double reactions (2) weretested.

FIG. 12 is a copy of an autoradiogram showing TRF lengths in HME-31cells and HME31-E6 cells to extended lifespan (PD68) and subsequentimmortalization and stabilization of telomere length (PD81, 107).

FIG. 13 is a copy of an autoradiogram showing the effect of CTR ontelomere length during the senescence of HME31:E6 cells. An intermediatetime point is chosen to show the dose-dependent protective effect of CTRoligonucleotide.

FIG. 14 is a graph showing extension of the life span of IMR90 lungfibroblast cells in response to the CTO oligonucleotide.

FIGS. 15 and 16 are copies of autoradiograms showing the effect of GTOon telomere length in IDH4 cells.

FIG. 17 is a graph showing extension of the life span of HME31:E6 humanbreast epithelial cells in response to the CTO oligonucleotide.

FIG. 18A. shows the templating portion of the Tetrahymena telomerase RNAwith residues numbered 1 (5′) through 9 (3′) below it. Theoligonucleotide primer with the sequence T₂G₄T₂G₄ binds to the templateby the base-pairing shown. Elongation followed by template translocationare thought to occur as indicated.

FIG. 18B shows positions of major chain termination on the telomeraseRNA template by different nucleoside triphosphate analogs. Thetelomerase RNA template sequence is shown as in FIG. 18A. Arrowsindicate the position of maximal chain termination for each nucleosidetriphosphate (derived from the nucleoside) analog shown.

FIGS. 19A-F are graphs showing that nucleoside analog triphosphatesinhibit incorporation of a ³²P label in a Tetrahymena telomerase assay.The effect of adding increasing concentrations of the analog, unlabeleddGTP or unlabeled TTP on the incorporation of labeled nucleotides wasmeasured using a quantitative telomerase reaction assay. Radioactivityincorporated (cpm) was plotted against the concentration of competitorsindicated in each panel. (A. labeled with [α-³¹P]TTP. B—F. labeled with[α-³²P]dGTP. F. Effect of streptomycin sulfate on the telomerasereaction. The incorporation in the presence of 40 mM sodium sulfate isshown as the control for streptomycin sulfate).

FIGS. 20A and B show the effect of nucleoside triphosphate analogs onpausing patterns and processivity of telomerase in vitro. Specifically,

FIG. 20A shows telomerase reactions in the presence or absence of theindicated nucleoside triphosphate analogs. Unlabeled TTP competitor wasalso analyzed as a control, with and without primer in the reaction mix.Products were then analyzed on a denaturing polyacrylamide gel.

FIG. 20B shows standard telomerase reactions were performed in thepresence of ddGTP (lanes 4-6), ddITP (lanes 7-9), or DMSO (lane 1). DMSOwas the solvent for ddGTP and at the highest concentration tested (1%)showed no effect on the reactions compared with control reactions runwithout analog or DMSO (control lanes 2-3). Products were analyzed on adenaturing polyacrylamide gel.

FIGS. 21A-D shows Southern blot analysis to demonstrate the effect ofnucleoside analogs on telomere length in vivo, using a nick-translated[α-³²P]-labeled plasmid containing a 3′ rDNA fragment as probe. GenomicDNA was digested with PstI and BamHI and the rDNA telomeres analyzed.The telomeric PstI fragment from the rDNA is between the 1.6 and 1.0 kbmarkers, indicated as lines on both sides of each panel. The constant2.8 kb band is the adjacent internal PstI rDNA fragment. Specifically,

FIG. 21A shows results with a clone of Tetrahymena thermophila grown in2% PPYS in the absence (−) and three clones in the presence (+) of 5 mMAZT. Each set of three lanes shows the results for a single cell clonegrown vegetatively and transferred after 3 days (lanes 1, 4, 7, 10), 10days (lanes 2, 5, 8, 11) and 16 days (lanes 3,6,9,12).

FIG. 21B shows that growth in different concentrations of AZTconsistently resulted in concentration-dependent shortening of telomeresin log phase cells grown in thymine-deficient broth (Isobroth) plus AZT.DNA made from cells sampled at 6, 10, and 16 days show that shortenedtelomere lengths remain constant between 6 and 16 days in culture. Lanes1, 5, 9, 0 mM AZT control; lanes 2, 6, 10, 0.01 mM AZT; lanes 3, 7, 11,0.1 mM AZT; lanes 4, 8, 12, 1 mM AZT.

FIG. 21C shows cells grown vegetatively in 2% PPYS with no addition(lane 1), with 1% DMSO, the solvent for Ara-G, (“C”, lanes 2 and 5), andwith Ara-G (lane 3, 1 mM; lanes 4 and 6, 2 mM ) at 14 and 27 days inculture.

FIG. 21D shows analysis of DNA from single-cell cultures grown inIsobroth plus 1 mM AZT (lanes 2 and 3) segregated into two classes basedon growth rate: “slow” (“S”, 0-1 doubling per day, lane 2) or “fast”(“F”, 2-4 doubling per day, lane 3). DNA from control cultures grown inthe absence of AZT are indicated (“C”, 2-4 doubling per day, lane 1).Several cultures were pooled in order to obtain sufficient DNA foranalysis.

FIG. 22 shows PCR analysis of DNA from Tetrahymena cells conjugated inthe presence of analog and starved for the duration of mating. ATelomeric primer and a 5′ rDNA primer were used in PCR reactions withDNA from cells conjugated in the presence or absence of analog to detectthe addition of telomeres to the 11 Kb rDNA formed during macronucleardevelopment. A reaction was run without DNA as a control. Tests includeduse of 5 mM AZT; 1 mM Ara-G, and 1 mM Acyclo-G. SB210 cells were alsomock-conjugated as a control. The expected product is approximately 1400bp. In addition, 3′ micronuclear rDNA primers were used on the same DNAto demonstrate the presence and competence of the DNA samples for PCR.The expected band is 810 bp. In the figure southern blot analysis of the5′ rDNA telomeric PCR reactions using a random-primed ³²P-labeled 5′rDNAprobe confirmed the 1400 bp PCR product as part of the 5′rDNA withtelomeres, from the 11 Kb rDNA species formed transiently duringmacronuclear development. No hybridization is seen in the no DNA control(lane 1) or the SB210 mock-conjugated control (lane 6). Lane 2, no addedanalog; lane 3, 5 mM AZT., lane 4, 1 mM Ara-G; lane 5, 1 mM Acyclo-G;lane 6, mock-conjugated SB210 cell DNA. These results were reproduced inthree separate experiments.

FIG. 23 shows growth of cultured JY lymphoma cells with RPMI medium andno added agents (control) and with a relatively low dose of ddG, AZT,ara-G, and ddI. The DMSO is a control for ddG.

FIG. 24 shows the growth of cultured JY lymphoma cells cultured in ananalogous manner to those in FIG. 23, but treated with relatively higherdoses of potential telomerase inhibitors.

FIGS. 25A and 25B show Southern blot of DNA isolated from JY lymphomacells at weeks one (FIG. 25A) and three (FIG. 25B) probed with thetelomeric repeat sequence (TTAGGG)₃. The first lane is DNA from thecells at the start of the experiment, the second is the RPMI control,and the third is cells treated with AZT for the times indicated.

FIG. 26 shows fibroblast DNA hybridized by Southern blot to thetelomeric (TTAGGG)₃ probe. Lane labeled “HinfI” is DNA digested with therestriction enzyme HinfI, the lane labeled “O” had no treatment, thelane labeled “P only” was treated with piperidine, and the lane labelled“P+DMS” was piperidine and dimethyl sulfate treated.

FIG. 27 shows the inhibition of human telomerase achieved by the agentddG at various dosages in three separate experiments. The telomerase wasderived from the tumor cell line 293.

FIG. 28 shows hybridization of C. albicans telomeric repeats to genomicDNAs of a variety of other Candida species. Genomic DNAs of eightspecies of yeasts were digested with EcoRI, electrophoresed on 0.8%agarose, blotted, and then probed with a ³²P-labeled telomeric fragmentfrom C. albicans WO-1. Hybridization was carried out at 55° C. andwashes were at the same temperature in Na₂HPO₄ at 200 mM Na⁺ and 2% SDS.DNA size markers, measured in kilobase pairs (kb), are shown at theright. The species used here are C. guillermondii, S. cerevisiae, C.pseudotropicalis, Kluyveromyces lactis, C. lusitaniae, C. maltosa, C.tropicalis, and C. albicans. Asterisks indicate particular strains fromwhich telomeres were cloned. Strains beginning with “B” are N.I.H.strains obtained from B. Wickes.

FIGS. 29A and 29B show Bal31 sensitivity of genomic copies of the tandemrepeats in K. lactis ATCC 32143 (FIG. 29A) and C. guillermondii B-3163(FIG. 29B). Uncut yeast genomic DNAs were incubated with Bal3l nucleasefor increasing periods of time (given in minutes above each lane), thendigested with EcoRI and electrophoresed on a 0.8% agarose gel, andblotted onto a nylon membrane. For K. lactis, probing was done with a³²P-kinased 25 base oligonucleotide identical in sequence to the K.lactis telomeric repeat shown in FIG. 30. Hybridization and washes werecarried out at 49° C. For C. guillermondii, probing was done with³²P-labeled pCgui3, a pBluescript vector (Stratagene, LaJolla, Calif.)carrying a α-2 kb telomeric clone from C. guillermondii. Hybridizatijnand washing (in 200 mM Na⁺) were carried out at 54° C. Most bands aregone by the 1 min. time point. Approximately three other bands areshortening but are not gone at 3 min. These latter bands presumably arehomologous to the particular subtelomeric sequences present in pCgui3.DNA size markers (in kb) are indicated at the right of each panel.

FIG. 30 shows sequences of telomeric repeats from several budding yeastspecies. Specifically, telomere-enriched libraries were constructed fromgenomic DNA by standard methods. Uncut yeast genomic DNA was ligated toa blunt-ended linearized plasmid vector and then this ligated mix wasdigested with a restriction enzyme that cleaves both within the vector'spolylinker and within a few kilobases of at least some of the putativetelomeric ends of the species in question. No enzymatic pre-treatmentwas done to produce blunt-ends of the telomeres in the genomic DNA priorto the initial ligations. Plasmids were then recircularized with T4DNAligase, and transformed into E. coli cells prior to screening forputative telomere clones by colony hybridization. The libraries from C.maltosa, C. Rseudotrolicalis, two strains of C. tropicalis, and K.lactis ATCC 32143, species which showed multiple bands that crosshybridized to the C. albicans telomeric repeat probe, were screened withthis probe. A cloned S. cerevisiae telomere probe (repeat unitTG₂₋₃(GT)₁₋₃,) was used to screen the telomere—enriched library from C.alabrata, whose genomic DNA cross—hybridized with this, but not with theC. albicans telomeric repeat probe. C. cuillermondii DNA did notappreciably cross-hybridize with either the C. albicans or the S.cerevisiae telomeric probes at the stringencies tested. Thetelomere—enriched library from this species was screened using totalgenomic C. guillermondii DNA as a probe. This procedure can be used toidentify all clones containing repetitive sequences and we reasoned thattelomeres should be a reasonable percentage of the repetitive sequencesfound in telomere enriched libraries. Typically, a few hundred E. colitransformants were obtained for each small library and up to nineputative telomere clones were obtained from each. Nine repetitive DNAclones were obtained from C. quillermondii, three of which proved to betelomeric.

FIGS. 31A and 31B show two types of telomeric repeats present in certainC. trovicalis strains. Genomic DNAs from ten (only five here are shown)C. troticalis strains and C. albicans WO-1 were digested with ClaI,eletrophoresed on a 0.8% agarose gel, blotted, and probed witholigonucleotides specific to either the “AC form of C. tropicalistelomeric repeat (FIG. 31A) or to the “AA” form of repeat (FIG. 31B).Sequences of these two oligonucleotides are: 5′ACGGATGTCACG (“AC”) and5′GTGTAAGGATG (“AA”) with the position of the dimorphic base shownunderlined. Hybridization with the kinased “AC” probe was at 47° C., andhybridization with the “AA” probe at 24° C. Washes for both were in 2%SDS with 500 mM Na⁺. The specificity of the “AA” probe is indicated byits failure to hybridize with the C. albicans telomeres, despite onlyone base mismatch and the fact that the C. albicans cells used here havemuch longer telomeres (and therefore many more telomeric repeats) thando C. tropicalis strains. The shortness of the C. tropicalis telomeresmay explain why they appear to be particularly homogeneous in size, asis suggested by the relative sharpness of individual telomeric bands.

FIG. 32 shows a Southern blot of DNA isolated from JY cells hybridizedto the (TTAGGG)₃ probe. Cells were treated over a 10 week period witheither 10 μM ddG in 0.01% DMSO or medium with 0.01% DMSO only. Cellstreated with ddG showed a marked decrease in mean telomere lengthconsistant with the inhibition of telomerase activity.

FIGS. 33A and 33B shows telomerase activity in cells from ascitic fluid.Specifically, S100 extracts were prepared, protein concentrationsdetermined and telomerase activity assayed by incubating S100 extractswith an equal volume of reaction mixture containing buffer, telomereprimer (TTAGGG)₃, α³²PdGTP, TTP and dATP, at 30° C. for 1 hour. Thereactions were terminated with RNase followed by deproteination withproteinase K. Unincorporated α³²PdGTP was removed using NICK SPINcolumns (Pharmacia) according to the supplier's direction. Products wereresolved on a sequencing gel and exposed to either a PhosphorImagerscreen (Molecular Dynamics). A ladder (L) and kinased 5′³²P(TTAGGG)₃ (O)were run as markers.

FIGS. 33A and show telemerase assayed in S100 extracts with equalprotein concentration (≈11 mg/ml) prepared from the control human cellline 293 CSH, a subline of 293 cell line, and from unfractionatedascitic fluid cells from patient Dem-1 and Rud-1. In lanes 1, 3 and 5RNase was added to the extracts prior to addition of α³²PdGTP.

FIG. 33B shows S100 extracts isolated and assayed for telomeraseactivity from the early passage cultures of cells from patients Pres-3and Nag-1 compared to 293 cells. All extracts were assayed at a proteinconcentration of ≈2-3 mg/ml.

Telomeres and Telomerase

All normal diploid vertebrate cells have a limited capacity toproliferate, a phenomenon that has come to be known as the Hayflicklimit or replicative senescence. In human fibroblasts, this limit occursafter 50-100 population doublings, after which the cells remain in aviable but non-dividing senescent state for many months. This contraststo the behavior of most cancer cells, which have escaped from thecontrols limiting their proliferative capacity and are effectivelyimmortal.

One hypothesis to explain the cause of cellular senescence concerns therole of the distal ends of chromosomes called telomeres. The hypothesisis that somatic cells lack the ability to replicate the very ends of DNAmolecules. This results in a progressive shortening of the ends of thechromosomes until some function changes, at which time the cell losesthe capacity to proliferate.

DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA in a 5′to 3′ direction and requires aprimer to initiate synthesis. Because of this, the “lagging strand” doesnot replicate to the very ends of linear chromosomes. The chromosome isthus shortened with every cell division. The ends of chromosomes arecalled telomeres, and are composed of long TTAGGG repeats. The enzymetelomerase can add TTAGGG repeats to the 3′ end of the telomeric DNA,thus extending the DNA and preventing shortening.

Germline cells have long telomeres and active telomerase. Somatic cellslack telomerase activity, and their telomeres have been found to shortenwith cell division both in vivo and in culture. Cancer cells areimmortal, and have regained telomerase activity and thus can maintaintheir chromosome ends. Examples are provided below of definitiveexperiments which indicate that telomere shortening and telomeraseactivity are key factors in controlling cellular senescence andimmortalization.

Methods

As noted above, the present invention concerns diagnosis and therapyassociated with measuring telomeric length and manipulatingtelomerase-dependent extension or telomerase-independent shortening.While the invention is directed to humans, it may be applied to otheranimals, particularly mammals, such as other primates, and domesticanimals, such as equine, bovine, avian, ovine, porcine, feline, andcanine. The invention may be used in both therapy and diagnosis. In thiscase of therapy, for example, telomere shortening may be slowed orinhibited by providing DNA oligonucleotides by reactivating orintroducing telomerase activity, or their functional equivalent, orindefinite proliferation can be reduced by inhibiting telomerase. In thecase of diagnostics, one may detect the length of telomeres as to aparticular chromosome or group of chromosomes, or the average length oftelomeres. Diagnosis may also be associated with determining theactivity of telomerase, or the presense of the components of the enzymeeither on a protein or RNA level, in cells, tissue, and the like.

Information on the relative age, remaining proliferative capacity, aswell as other cellular characteristics associated with telomere andtelomerase status may be obtained with a wide variety of cell types andtissues, such as embryonic cells, other stem cells, somatic cells (suchas hepatocytes in the context of cirrhosis), connective tissue cells(such as fibroblasts, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts), vascular cells(such as endothelial and smooth muscle cells), cells located in thecentral nervous system (such as brain astrocytes), and differentneoplastic tissues, and parasitic pathogens where it is desirable todetermine both the remaining replicative capacity of the hyperplasticcells and their capacity for immortal growth to predict growthpotential.

Maintaining Telomere Length

Telomere length in cells in vitro or in vivo may be usefully maintainedby a variety of procedures. These include those methods exemplifiedbelow. These examples, however, are not limiting in this invention sincethose in the art will recognize equivalent methods. It is expected thatall the methods will be useful in manipulating telomere length now thatapplicant has demonstrated this experimentally. Such methods may bebased upon provision of oligonucleotides or other agents which interactwith telomeres to prevent shortening during cell division. In addition,the methods include treatment with agents which will include telomerase,or its equivalent activity, within a cell to prevent shortening.Finally, the methods also include modulation of gene expressionassociated with cell senescence.

Useful agents can be determined by routine screening procedures. Forexample, by screening agents which interact in an in vitro system withtelomeres, and block loss of telomere ends, or aid increase in telomerelength. Non-limiting examples of such methods are provided below. Allthat is necessary is an assay to determine whether telomere endshortening is reduced during cell division. The mechanism by which suchagents act need not be known, so long as the desired outcome isachieved. However, by identifying useful target genes (e.g., the M2mortality modulation gene(s)), antisense and equivalent procedures canbe designed to more appropriately cause desired gene expression ornon-expression (e.g., the de-repression of telomerase).

In a particular example (non-limiting in this invention) one can reducethe rate of telomere shortening, by providing a nucleic acid, e.g., DNAor RNA (including modified forms), as a primer to the cells. Suchnucleic acid will usually include 2 to 3 repeats, more usually 2repeats, where the repeats are complementary to the G-rich DNA telomerestrand. Such oligonucleotides may be used to extend the proliferativecapability of cells.

The oligonucleotides can be transferred into the cytoplasm, eitherspontaneously (i.e., without specific modification) or by the use ofliposomes which fuse with the cellular membrane, or are endocytosed byemploying ligands which bind to surface membrane protein receptors ofthe cell resulting in endocytosis. Alternatively, the cells may bepermeabilized to enhance transport of the oligonucleotides into thecell, without injuring the host cells. Another way is to use a DNAbinding protein, e.g., HBGF-1, which is known to transport anoligonucleotide into a cell. In this manner, one may substantiallyreduce the rate of telomere shortening from an average of about 50 bpper division, to an average of about 6-12 bp per division (see examplesbelow), thus significantly extending the number of divisions occurringbefore induced cellular senescence.

By “senescence” is meant the loss of ability of a cell to replicate inthe presence of normally appropriate replicative signals, and may beassociated with the expression of degradative enzymes, such ascollagenase. The term does not include quiescent cells which might beinduced to replicate under appropriate conditions. This term isexemplified below in the examples, where the number of cell doublingprior to senescence is increased.

The above processes are useful in vivo. As already indicated, by usingliposomes, particularly where the liposome surface carries ligandsspecific for target cells, or the liposomes will be preferentiallydirected to a specific organ, one may provide for the introduction ofthe oligonucleotides into the target cells in vivo. For instance,utilizing lipocortin affinity for phosphatidyl serine, which is releasedfrom injured vascular endothelial cells, the oligonucleotides may bedirected to such site. Alternatively, catheters, syringes, depots or thelike may be used to provide high localized concentrations. Theintroduction of such oligonucleotides into cells resulting in decreasedsenescence in response to cell division can have therapeutic effect.

The maintenance of telomere length has application in tissue culturetechniques to delay the onset of cellular senescence. For instance,cell-based therapies which require the clonal expansion of cells forreintroduction into an autologous patient are limited to about 20-30doublings. This invention allows, the expansion of cells in the case ofgene therapy, both prior to genetic manipulation and then expansion ofthe manipulated cells, the maintenance of telomere length. This in turnallows normal cells to be cultivated for extended doublings in vitro.Experiments described below demonstrate the utility of this method invitro, and demonstrate its applicability in vivo.

Critical shortening of telomeres leads to a phenomenon termed “crisis”or M2 senescence. See, Shay et al., 1992, supra. Among the cells incrisis, rare mutants may become immortalized in which M2 genes havealtered regulation, and where expression of telomerase is reactivatedand stabilizes the telomere length. An M2 regulatory gene may bemodulated to provide a useful means of modulating telomere length andtelomerase activity. The M2 genes may be identified by means ofinsertional mutagenesis into cells in M2 crisis utilizing a retrovirus.Cells wherein the M2 gene has been knocked out will then grow inresponse to the re-activation of telomerase, and such cells can supply asource or DNA from which to clone the M2 genes. This technique hasyielded numerous cell clones in which the retrovirus has inserted into acommon restriction fragment. The repression of the M2 regulatory gene(s)by antisense or other means can provide a means of activating telomerasereversibly, such that telomeres may be extended and then telomeraseagain repressed. In this manner, proliferative capacity may be extendedwith or without the addition of oligonucleotides to slow the telomereshortening. Such cells may then be used in cell-based therapies, such asbone marrow transplantation, reconstitution of connective tissue, andtransplantation of early passage adrenal cortical cells, fibroblasts,epithelial cells, and myoblasts.

Telomerase Modulation

As discussed above, cancer cells contain telomerase activity and arethereby immortal. In addition, numerous types of parasitic pathogens areimmortal and have active telomerase. Thus, it is useful to modulate(e.g., decrease) telomerase activity in such cells to impart a finitereplicative life span. In contrast to the long telomeric tracts innormal human cells, tracts of telomeric DNA in protozoan cells, fungalcells, and some parasitic worms, as well as many cancer cells, aretypically shorter. This makes these cells more vulnerable to telomeraseinhibitors than normal human cells (e.g. germ line cells).

Thus, inhibition or induction of telomerase has applications in varioussituations. By inhibiting telomerase intracellularly, one may reduce theability of cancer cells to proliferate. Telomerase may be competitivelyinhibited by adding synthetic agents, e.g., oligonucleotides comprising2 or more, usually not more than about 50 repeats, of the telomericmotif of the 5′-3′ G-rich strand (the strand which acts as thetemplate). The oligonucleotides may be synthesized from natural orunnatural units, e.g., the derivatives or carbon derivatives, where aphosphate-oxygen is substituted with sulfur or methylene, modifiedsugars, e.g., arabinose, or the like. As discussed above, otherequivalent agents may also be used to inhibit or cause expression oftelomerase activity.

The oligonucleotides may be introduced as described above so as toinduce senescence in the immortalized cells, in culture and in vivo.Where growing cells in culture, where one wishes to prevent immortalizedcells from overgrowing the culture, one may use the subjectoligonucleotides to reduce the probability of such overgrowth. Thus, bymaintaining the oligonucleotides in the medium, they will be taken up bythe cells and inhibit telomerase activity. One may provide for linkageto the telomeric sequence with a metal chelate, which results incleavage of nucleic acid sequences. Thus, by providing iron chelatebound to the telomeric motif, the telomerase RNA will be cleaved, so asto be non-functional. Alternatively, a reactive group may be coupled tothe oligonucleotide that will covalently bind to telomerase, or the 3′residue may be made to be dideoxy so as to force chain termination.

Alternatively, one may introduce a ribozyme, having 5′ and 3′-terminalsequences complementary to the telomerase RNA, so as to provide forcleavage of the RNA. In this way, the telomerase activity may besubstantially inhibited, so as to result in a significant limitation ofthe ability of the cancer cells to proliferate. Telomerase may also beinhibited by the administration of an M2 regulator gene product. Bymodulating the expression of any of the proteins directly regulatingtelomerase expression, one may also modulate cellular telomeraseactivity.

Alternatively, one may use a screening assay utilizing human ortetrahymena telomerase to screen small molecules e.g., nucleosideanalogs like ava-G, ddG, AZT, and the like and RNA and DNA processingenzyme inhibitors, alkylating agents, and various potential anti-tumordrugs. These may then be further modified.

The nucleic acid sequences may be introduced into the cells as describedpreviously. Various techniques exist to allow for depots associated withtumors. Thus, the inhibiting agents or nucleic acids may be administeredas drugs, since they will only be effective only in cells which includetelomerase. Since for the most part, human somatic cells lack telomeraseactivity they will be unaffected. Some care may be required to prevententry of such drugs into germ cells, which may express telomeraseactivity.

The subject compositions can therefore be used in the treatment ofneoplasia wherein the tumor cells have acquired an immortal phenotypethrough the inappropriate activation of telomerase, as well as varioushuman and veterinary parasitic diseases; including human protozoalpathogens such as; amebiasis from Entamoeba histolytica, amebicmeningoencephalitis from the genus Naegleria or Acanthamoeba, malariafrom Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malariae, andPlasmodium falciparum, Leishmaniasis from such protozoa as Leishmaniadonovani, Leishmania infantum, Leishmania chagasi, Leishmania tropica,Leishmania major, Leishmania aethiopica, Leishmania mexicana, andLeishmania braziliensis, Chagas' disease from the protozoan Trypanosomacruzi, sleeping sickness from Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma gambiense,and Trypanosoma rhodesiense, Toxoplasmosis from Toxoplasma gondii,giardiasis from Giardia lamblia, cryptosporidiosis from Cryptosporidiumparvum, trichomoniasis from Trichomonas vaginalis, Trichomonas tenax,Trichomonas hominis, pneumocystis pneumonia from Pneumocystis carinii,bambesosis from Bambesia microti, Bambesia divergens, and Bambesiaboris, and other protozoans causing intestinal disorders such asBalantidium coli and Isospora belli. Telomerase inhibitors would also beuseful in treating certain helminthic infections including the species:Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, Diphyllobothrium lata, Echinococcusgranulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, Hymenolepis nana, Schistosomamansomi, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma hematobium, Clonorchissinensis, Paragonimus westermani, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciolopsis buski,Heterophyes heterophyes, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura,Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus,Strongyloides stercoralis, Trichinella spiralis, Wuchereria bancrofti,Onchocerca volvulus, Loa loa, Dracunculus medinensis, and fungalpathogens such as: Sporothrix schenckii, Coccidioides immitis,Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioidesbrasiliensis, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillusfumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, fungi of the genera Mucor and Rhizopus,and species causing chromomycosis such as those of the generaPhialophora and Cladosporium. and important veterinary protozoalpathogens such as: Babesia caballi, Babesia canis, Babesia equi, Babesiafelis, Balantidium coli, Besnoitia darlingi, Eimeria acervulina, Eimeriaadenoeides, Eimeria ahsata, Eimeria alabamensis, Eimeria auburnensis,Eimeria bovis, Eimeria brasiliensis, Eimeria brunetti, Eimeriacanadensis, Eimeria cerdonis, Eimeria crandallis, Eimeria cylindrica,Eimeria debliecki, Eimeria despersa, Eimeria ellipsoidalis, Eimeriafauvei, Eimeria gallopavonis, Eimeria gilruthi, Eimeria granulosa,Eimeria hagani, Eimeria illinoisensis, Eimeria innocua, Eimeriaintricata, Eimeria leuskarti, Elmeria maxima, Elmeria meleagridis,Eimeria meleagrimitis, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria mivati, Eimeria necatrix,Eimeria neodebliecki, Eimeria ninakohlyakimorae, Eimeria ovina, Eimeriapallida, Eimeria parva, Eimeria perminuta, Eimeria porci, Eimeriapraecox, Eimeria punctata, Eimeria scabra, Eimeria spinoza, Eimeriasubrotunda, Eimeria subsherica, Eimeria suis, Eimeria tenella, Eimeriawyomingensis, Eimeria zuernii, Endolimax gregariniformis, Endolimaxnana, Entamoeba bovis, Entamoeba gallinarum, Entamoeba histolytica,Entamoeba suis, Giardia bovis, Giardia canis, Giardia cati, Giardialamblia, Haemoproteus meleagridis, Hexamita meleagridis, Histomonasmeleagridis, Iodamoeba buetschili, Isospora bahiensis, Isosporaburrowsi, Isospora canis, Isospora fells, Isospora ohioensis, Isosporarivolta, Isospora suis, Klossiella equi, Leucocytozoon caallergi,Leucocytozoon smithi, Parahistomonas wenrichi, Pentatrichomonas hominis,Sarcocystis betrami, Sarcocystis bigemina, Sarcocystis cruzi,Sarcocystis fayevi, hemionilatrantis, Sarcocystis hirsuta, Sarcocystismiescheviana, Sarcocystis muris, Sarcocystis ovicanis, Sarcocystistenella, Tetratrichomonas buttreyi, Tetratrichomonas gallinarum,Theileria mutans, Toxoplasma gondii, Toxoplasma hammondi, Trichomonascanistomae, Trichomonas gallinae, Trichomonas felistomae, Trichomonaseberthi, Trichomonas equi, Trichomonas foetus, Trichomonas ovis,Trichomonas rotunda, Trichomonas suis, and Trypanosoma melophagium. Inaddition, they can be used for studying cell senescence, the role oftelomeres in the differentiation and maturation of cells from atotipotent stem cell, e.g., embryonic stem cells, or the like, and therole of telomerase in spermatogenesis.

Telomere Length

Procedures for measuring telomere length are known in the art and can beused in this invention. Typically, restriction endonuclease digestion isused (with enzymes which do not cleave telomeric DNA), and the length ofthe fragment having detectable telomere DNA is separated according tomolecular weight by agarose gel electrophoresis. Given that the DNAsequence of a telomere is known, detection of such DNA is relativelyeasy by use of specific oligonucleotides. Examples of these methods areprovided below.

For diagnosis, in detection of the telomeric length, one may study justa particular cell type, all cells in a tissue (where various cells maybe present), or subsets of cell types, and the like. The preparation ofthe DNA having such telomeres may be varied, depending upon how thetelomeric length is to be determined.

Conveniently, the DNA may be isolated in accordance with anyconventional manner, freeing the DNA of proteins by extraction, followedby precipitation. Whole genomic DNA may then be melted by heating to atleast about 80° C., usually at least about 94° C., or using high saltcontent with chaotropic ions, such as 6×SSC, quanidinium thiocyanate,urea, and the like. Depending upon the nature of the melting process,the medium may then be changed to a medium which allows for DNAsynthesis.

(a) DNA Synthesis

In one method, a primer is used having at least about 2 repeats,preferably at least about 3 repeats of the telomeric sequence, generallynot more than about 8 repeats, conveniently not more than about 6repeats. The primer is added to the genomic DNA in the presence of only3 of the 4 nucleoside triphosphates (having the complementarynucleosides to the protruding or G-rich strand of a telomere, e.g., A, Tand C for human chromosomes), dATP, dTTP and dCTP. Usually at least theprimer or at least one of the triphosphates is labeled with a detectablelabel, e.g., a radioisotope, which label is retained upon incorporationin the chain. If no label is used, other methods can be used to detectDNA synthesis. The primer is extended by means of a DNA polymerase,e.g., the Klenow fragment of DNA polymerase I, T7 DNA polymerase or TagDNA polymerase The length of the extended DNA can then be determined byvarious techniques, e.g., those which separate synthesized DNA on thebasis of its molecular weight, e.g., gel electrophoresis. The DNAsynthesized may then be detected based on the label, e.g., countsincorporated per μg of DNA, where the counts will be directlyproportional to telomere length. Thus, the measure of radioactivity inrelation to the amount of DNA will suffice to quantitate telomerelength.

If desired, telomeres of known length may be used as standards, wherebya determination of radioactivity may be read off a standard curve asrelated to telomere length. Instead, one may prepare tissues whereindividual cells may be assayed for relative telomere length by in situhybridization. In this approach, for example, the primer is labeled witha detectable label, usually biotin or digoxygenin. Following annealingto prepared tissue sections or cells, the label is revealedhistochemically, usually using autoradiography (if the label wereradioactive), using avidin/streptavidin (if the label were biotin) orusing antidigoxygenin antibodies (if the label were digoxygenin). Theamount of signal per cell is proportional to the number of telomericrepeats, and thus to the telomere length. This can be quantitated bymicrofluorometry or analogous means, and compared to the signal fromstandard cells of known telomere length to determine the telomere lengthin the test sample.

(b) Restriction Endonuclease Digestion

Alternatively, one may use primers which cause covalent cross-linking ofthe primer to telomere DNA. In this situation, one may totally digestthe DNA with restriction endonucleases which have 4 base recognitionsites, which results in the production of relatively short fragments ofDNA, except for telomeric DNA which lacks the recognition site.Restriction endonucleases which may find use include AluI, HinfI, MspI,RsaI, and Sau3A, where the restriction endonucleases may be usedindividually or in combination. After digestion of the genomic DNA, theprimer may be added under hybridizing conditions, so as to bind to theprotruding chain of the telomeric sequence. By providing for twomoieties bound to the primer, one for covalent bonding to the telomericsequence and the other for complex formation with a specific bindingpair member, one can then provide for linking of a telomeric sequence toa surface. For example, for covalent bonding to the telomeric sequence,psoralen, or isopsoralen, may be linked to one of the nucleotides by abond or chain and upon UV-radiation, will form a bridge between theprimer and the telomere.

The specific binding pair member will normally be a hapten, which bindsto an appropriate complementary member, e.g., biotin and strept/avidin,trinitrobenzoic acid and anti-trinitrobenzamide antibody, ormethotrexate and dihydrofolate reductase. Rather than having the moietyfor covalent bonding covalently bonded to the primer, one may add acompound into the medium which is intercalatable into the nucleic acid,so as to intercalate between double-stranded nucleic acid sequences. Inthis manner, one may achieve the same purpose. Use of a substantialexcess of the intercalatable compound will cause it to also intercalateinto other portions of DNA which are present. Various modifications ofthis process may be achieved, such as size separation, to reduce theamount of label containing DNA.

The specific binding pair member may be used for separation of telomericDNA free of contaminating DNA by binding to the complementary pairmember, which may be present on beads, on particles in a column, or thelike. In accordance with the nature of the separation, the covalentlybonded telomere strand may now be purified and measured for size ormolecular weight. Again, if desired, standards may be employed forcomparison of distribution values.

The specific binding pair member hapten can be present at the5′-terminus of the primer or at intermediate nucleotides. Specifically,biotin-conjugated nucleotides are generally available and may be readilyintroduced into synthetic primer sequences in accordance with knownways.

The above-described techniques can also be used for isolating andidentifying DNA contiguous to the telomere.

(c) Average Telomere Length

In methods of this invention it may be useful to determine averagetelomere length by binding a primer to a telomere prior to separation ofthe telomeric portion of the chromosomes from other parts of thechromosomes. This provides a double-stranded telomeric DNA comprisingthe telomeric overhang and the primer. A reaction may then be carriedout which allows for specific identification of the telomeric DNA, ascompared to the other DNA present. The reaction may involve extension ofthe primer with only 3 of the nucleotides (dNTPs), using a labelednucleotide, covalent bonding of the primer to the telomeric sequence, orother methods which allow for separation of the telomeric sequence fromother sequences. The length of the synthesized DNA detected thenrepresents the average telomere length.

Telomere length can also be measured directly by the “anchored terminalprimer” method. In this method, the 3′ ends of genomic DNA are first“tailed” with dG nucleotides using terminal transferase. Telomeres,which are known to have 3′ overhangs, then would have one of the threefollwing conformations:

. . . 5′TTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGGGGGGGGG . . . 3′

. . . 5′TTAGGGTTAGGGTTGGGGGGGGGGGG . . . 3′

. . . 5′TTAGGGTTAGGGTGGGGGGGGGGGGG . . . 3′

Other ends of the genomic DNA which were generated by shearing would betailed with G's but would not have the adjacent TTAGGG repeats. Thus, amix of the following 3 biotinylated oligonucleotides would anneal understringent conditions specifically to all possible telomere ends:

5′B-CCCCCCCCTAACCCTA

5′B-CCCCCCCCAACCCTAA Oligo Mix [M]

5′B-CCCCCCCCACCCTAAC

Oligo mix [M] consists of 16-base oligonucleotides with 5′ biotin (B),but other combinations of 5′-C-tracts adjacent to the C-rich telomericrepeats could provide specific hybridization to the 3′ end of the nativetelomeres.

Extension of the primer with a DNA polymerase such as Klenow, DNAPolymerase I, or Taq polymerase, in the presence of dCTP, DATP, dTTP (nodGTP, and with or without ddGTP) would stabilize the primer-templateconfiguration and allow selection, using streptavadin beads, of theterminal fragments of DNA containing the telomeric DNA. The length ofprimer extension using Klenow (monitored with labeled nucleotides) wouldindicate the length of the telomeric (GTR) 3′ overhang, since Klenowlacks 5′-3′ exonuclease activity and would stall at the CTR. This lengthdistribution could be indicative of the level of telomerase activity intelomerase-positive cells (i.e., longer extensions correspond to greatertelomerase activity). In contrast, extension of the primer with DNApolymerase I, an enzyme with 5′-3′ exonuclease activity as well aspolymerase activity, would allow extension through the CTR until C's areencountered in the template strand (subtelomeric to the GTR). The lengthdistribution of this reaction, monitored by labeled nucleotides, wouldbe indicative of the length distribution of the GTR. In both cases,labeled products arising from biotinylated primers are selected with thestreptavadin beads to reduce the signal from non-specific priming.Alternatively, re-priming and extension of the tailed chromosome end cantake place after selection of the partially extended products with thestreptavadin beads, and after denaturation of the C-rich strand from theduplex.

Experiments have confirmed that the G-tailing of chromosome ends can becarried out efficiently such that about 50 G residues are added per end,that the priming with the junction oligonucleotide mix is highlyspecific for the tailed telomeric ends, and that streptavadin beadsselect specifically for the extension products that originate from thebiotinylated primers and not from other fortuitous priming events. Thelength of the extension products under the conditions outlined abovethus provide a direct estimate of the length of the terminal TTAGGGrepeat tract. This information is especially important in cases wherestretches of TTAGGG repeats occur close to but not at the termini ofchromosomes. No other method described to date is capable ofdistinguishing between the truly terminal TTAGGG repeats and suchinternal repeats.

The determination of telomere length as described above can beassociated with a variety of conditions of diagnostic interest.Following telomere length in tumor cells provides information regardingthe proliferative capacity of such cells before and followingadministration of inhibitors of telomerase (or other treatments whichdestabilizes the telomere length as discussed above). It also provides ameans of following the efficacy of any treatment and providing aprognosis of the course of the disease.

Where diseased tissue is involved, the native tissue can be evaluated asto proliferative capability. By “proliferative capability” is meant theinherent ability of a cell or cells in a tissue to divide for a fixednumber of divisions under normal proliferation conditions. That is, the“Hayflick” number of divisions, exemplified below in the examples. Thus,despite the fact that the tissue may have a spectrum of cells ofdifferent proliferative capability, the average value will beinformative of the state of the tissue generally. One may take a biopsyof the tissue and determine the average telomeric length. Using thevalue, one may then compare the value to average normal healthy tissueas to proliferative capability, particularly where the tissue iscompared to other tissue of similar age.

In cases of cellular diseases, such as liver disease, e.g., cirrhosis,or muscle disease, e.g., muscular dystrophy, knowledge of theproliferative capability can be useful in diagnosing the likelyrecuperative capability of the patient. Other situations involve injuryto tissue, such as in surgery, wounds, burns, and the like, where theability of fibroblasts to regenerate the tissue will be of interest.Similarly, in the case of loss of bone, osteoarthritis, or otherdiseases requiring reformation of bone, renewal capability ofosteoblasts and chondrocytes will be of interest.

While methods are described herein to evaluate the proliferativecapacity of a tissue by taking an average measure of telomere length itis noted that the tissue may have a spectrum of cells of differentproliferative capability. Indeed, many tissues, including liver,regenerate from only a small number of stem cells (less than a fewpercent of total cells). Therefore, it is useful in this invention touse in situ hybridization (such as with fluorescently labeled telomericprobes), to identify and quantitate such stem cells, and/or thetelomeric status of such cells on an individual, rather than collectivebasis. This is performed by measuring the fluorescent intensity for eachindividual cell nucleus using, e.g., automated microscopy imagingapparatus. In addition to in situ hybridization, gel electrophoresis isuseful in conjunction with autoradiography to determine not only theaverage telomere length in cells in a tissue sample, but also thelongest telomere lengths (possibly indicating the presence of stemcells) and the size distribution of telomere lengths (which may reflectdifferent histological cell types within a tissue, see FIGS. 10-11).Thus, the autoradiogram, or its equivalent provides useful informationas to the total telomere status of a cell, or group of cells. Eachsegment of such information is useful in diagnostic procedures of thisinvention.

d) Modified Maxam-Gilbert Reaction

The most common technique currently used to measure telomere length isto digest the genomic DNA with a restriction enzyme with a four-baserecognition sequence like HinfI, electrophorese the DNA and perform aSouthern blot hybridizing the DNA to a radiolabeled (TTAGGG)₃ probe. Adifficulty with this technique is that the resulting terminalrestriction fragments (TRFs) contain a 3-5 kbp stretch of subtelomericDNA that lacks restriction sites and thereby adds significantly to thesize of the measured telomere length. Another approach to eliminate thisDNA and improve accuracy of telomere length assays utilizes the factthat this subtelomeric DNA contains G and C residues in both strands,and thus should be cleaved under conditions that cause breaks at Gresidues. In contrast, DNA composed exclusively of telomeric repeatswill have one strand lacking G residues, and this strand should remainintact under G-cleavage conditions. The Maxam-Gilbert G-reaction usespiperidine to cleave guanine residies that have been methylated bydimethylsulfate (DMS) treatment. Although the original conditions of theMaxam-Gilbert G-reaction (treatment in 1M piperidine for 30 min. at 90°C.) breaks unmethylated DNA into fragments of 1-2 kbp and is thusnon-specific, milder conditions (0.1M piperidine for 30 min. at 37° C.)leave untreated DNA intact. The DNA is therefore treated with DMS andpiperidine as described above, precipitated with ethanol,electrophoresed, and hybridized on a Southern blot to the a (TTAGGG)₃probe. The results of such a test are shown in FIG. 26.

Telomerase Activity

Telomerase activity is useful as a marker of growth potential,particularly as to neoplastic cells, or progenitor cells, e.g.,embryonic stem cells. Human telomerase activity may be determined bymeasuring the rate of elongation of an appropriate repetitive sequence(primer), having 2 or more, usually 3 or more, repeats of the telomereunit sequence, TTAGGG. The sequence is labeled with a specific bindingpair member at a convenient site, e.g., the 5′-terminus, and thespecific binding pair member allows for separation of extendedsequences. By using one or more radioactive nucleoside triphosphates orother labeled nucleoside triphosphate, as described previously, one canmeasure the incorporated radioactivity as cpm per unit weight of DNA asa function of unit of time, as a measure of telomerase activity. Anyother detectable signal and label may also be used, e.g., fluorescein.

The activity may be measured with cytoplasmic extracts, nuclearextracts, lysed cells, whole cells, and the like. The particular samplewhich is employed and the manner of pretreatment will be primarily oneof convenience. The pretreatment will be carried out under conditionswhich avoids denaturation of the telomerase, so as to maintain thetelomerase activity. The primer sequence will be selected or labeled soas to allow it to be separated from any other DNA present in the sample.Thus, a haptenic label may be used to allow ready separation of theelongated sequence, which represents the telomerase activity of thesample. The nucleoside triphosphates which may be employed may includeat least one nucleoside triphosphate which is labeled. The label willusually be radiolabel, but other labels may also be present. The labelsmay include specific binding pair members, where the reciprocal membermay be labeled with fluorescers, enzymes, or other detectable label.Alternatively, the nucleoside triphosphates may be directly labeled withother labels, such as fluorescent labels.

The sequence elongation usually will be carried out at a convenienttemperature, generally from about 20° C. to 40° C., and for a timesufficient to allow for at least about 100 bp to be added on the averageto the initial sequence, generally about 30-90 minutes. After theincubation time to allow for the telomerase catalyzed elongation, thereaction may be terminated by any convenient means, such asdenaturation, e.g., heating, addition of an inhibitor, rapid removal ofthe sequence by means of the label, and washing, or the like. Theseparated DNA may then be washed to remove any non-specific binding DNA,followed by a measurement of the label by any conventional means.

The determination of telomerase activity may be used in a wide varietyof ways. It can be used to determine whether a cell is immortalized,e.g., when dealing with tissue associated with neoplasia. Thus, one candetermine at the margins of a tumor, whether the cells have telomeraseactivity and may be immortalized. The presence and activity of thetelomerase may also be associated with staging of cancer or otherdiseases. Other diagnostic interests associated with telomerase includemeasurement of activity as an assay for efficacy in treatment regimensdesignated to inhibit the enzyme.

Other techniques for measuring telomerase activity can use antibodiesspecific for the telomerase protein, where one may determine the amountof telomerase protein in a variety of ways. For example, one may usepolyclonal antisera bound to a surface of monoclonal antibody for afirst epitope bound to a surface and labeled polyclonal antisera orlabeled monoclonal antibody to a second epitope dispersed in a medium,where one can detect the amount of label bound to the surface as aresult of the telomerase or subunit thereof bridging between the twoantibodies. Alternatively, one may provide for primers to the telomeraseRNA and using reverse transcriptase and the polymerase chain reaction,determine the presence and amount of the telomerase RNA as indicative ofthe amount of telomerase present in the cells.

The following examples are offered by way of illustration and not by wayof limitation.

EXAMPLES

The following are examples of specific aspects of the invention tomerely illustrate this invention to those in the art. These examples arenot limiting in the invention, but provide an indication of specificmethodology useful in practice of the invention. They also provide clearindication of the utility of the invention and of the correlationbetween telomere length, telomerase activity and cellular senescence.Such correlation indicates to those in the art the breadth of theinvention beyond these examples.

Example 1

Telomere Length and Cell Proliferation

The effects of telomere length modulation on cellular proliferation werestudied. An average of 50 bp are lost per cell division in somaticcells. The telomere end is thought to have a single-stranded region asfollows (although the amount of overhang is unknown):

5′TTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAG GGTTA GGG

3′AATCCCAATCCC

(Seq. ID No. 1)

Applicant postulated that loss of this single-stranded overhang shouldbe significantly slowed if cells were provided with a syntheticoligonucleotide of the sequence CCCTAACCCTAA (Seq. ID No. 2). Thisoligonucleotide should hybridize to the exposed single-stranded region,and serve as a primer for DNA synthesis by the normal DNA polymerasepresent in somatic cells. In this way, rather than shortening by anaverage of 50 bp per division, the telomeres may only shorten by alesser amount per division, thus significantly extending the number ofdivisions required before telomere shortening induced cellularsenescence. This hypothesis was tested by measuring both the change inproliferative lifespan and rate of telomere shortening in cultured cellstreated with this indicated oligonucleotide, versus controloligonucleotides.

The efficacy of the CTO-12 oligonucleotide (5′-CCCTAACCCTAA-3′ Seq. IDNo. 2) to reduce telomere shortening associated with cellular senescence(FIG. 1) was studied using target cells cultured under standard cellculture conditions in minimal essential medium supplemented with 10%fetal calf serum. The cells were subcultivated every four days bytrypsinization upon reaching confluency and were fed new medium atsubcultivation or every two days, whichever came first. Cells at variouspopulation doubling levels were seeded at 10,000 cells per well and fedmedium containing oligonucleotides at various concentrations.oligonucleotides studied were the cytidine-rich terminal oligonucleotide(CTO-12), guanidine-rich terminal oligonucleotide-12 bp (GTO-12, havingthe sequence 5′-TTAGGGTTAGGG-3′ (Seq. ID No. 3)), and a 12 base pairrandomer with a random nucleotide in every position. As an additionalcontrol, cells were fed identical medium without oligonucleotide. Cellswere fed oligonucleotide every 48 hours from 10× stocks. (Sucholigonucleotides may be modified to enhance stability, e.g., withphosphorothioates, dithioate and 2-O-methyl RNA.) In the case ofphosphorothioates it would be desirable to use longer CTO primers suchas 5′-CCCTAACCCTAACCCT-3′, 5′-CCCTAACCCTAACCCTAA-3′, or5′-CCCTAACCCTAACCCTAACC-3′.

Specifically, IMR-90 human lung fibroblasts with a proliferativecapacity of approximately 55 population doubling (PD) were seeded atPD45 at 10,000 cells per well in a 48 well tissue culture dish, and fedmedium only or medium supplemented with CTO-12 (at 1.0 μM and 0.1 μM)and 12 base pair randomer at 1.0 μN. As shown in FIG. 1, cells grown inmedium without oligonucleotide, or with CTO-12 at less than 1.0 μM orwith oligonucleotide of random sequence reached replicative senescencein a similar fashion at about 52 population doubling. Cells fed theCTO-12 oligonucleotide at 1.0 μM, however, continued to proliferate forapproximately 10 doubling more than control cells.

Example 2

Inhibition of Telomerase in Cancer Cells

One way by which cancer cells are able to escape cellular senescence isby regaining telomerase activity, which permits them to maintain thelength of their telomeres in the face of multiple rounds of celldivision. The enzyme telomerase contains an RNA complementary to TTAGGG,which allows it to recognize the telomeres and extend them by theaddition of additional TTAGGG repeats. In fact, one assay for telomeraseuses a TTAGGGTTAGGG primer and measures the ability of cell extracts tosynthesis a ladder of 6 bp additions to this substrate. Telomeraseactivity in cancer cells is likely to be present in limiting amountssince telomere length is relatively stable (thus only about 50 bp pertelomere are added, so that lengthening and shortening are balanced).

Applicant hypothesized that feeding cells a synthetic TTAGGGTTAGGGoligonucleotide (Seq. ID No. 3) should competitively inhibit the abilityof telomerase to elongate chromosome ends, and thus should lead totelomere shortening and senescence in cancer cells. Since somatic cellslack telomerase activity, the effects of this treatment should bestrictly limited to cancer cells and the germ line.

Specifically, MDA 157 human breast cancer cells with an immortalphenotype were seeded at 10,000 cells per well in 12 well tissue culturedishes and fed medium only or medium supplemented with GTO-12 (at 1.0μM, 0.1 μM, and 0.01 μM). As shown in FIG. 2, cells grown in mediumwithout oligonucleotide, or with doses of less than 1.0 μM continuedreplicating in an immortal phenotype. Cells fed the GTO-12oligonucleotide, at 1.0 μM, however, ceased to proliferate after lessthan 10 doubling. Cells grown in the presence of 1.0 μM CTO-12 or 1.0 μMCTO-12 and 1.0 μM GTO-12 (G+C) continued to express the immortalphenotype suggesting that the GTO-12 oligonucleotide was notintrinsically toxic (FIG. 3). The lack of effect of the G+C mixture mayreflect the CTO-12 oligonucleotide, competing with or base pairing withthe GTO-12 oligonucleotide, this preventing its inhibitory effect on thecancer cell telomerase.

Example 3

Telomere Length as a Biomarker

In the U.S. and Western Europe, atherosclerosis is the principalcontributor to mortality from cardiovascular diseases (Ross, 314 N.Engl. J. Med. 488, 1986). Atherosclerosis is characterized by the muraland focal formation of lipid and cell-rich lesions or “plaques” on theintimal surfaces of arterial tissues. This is followed by anage-dependent expansion of the lesion into the lumen, potentiallyleading to occlusion and to myocardial and/or cerebral infarction(Haust, (1981) in Vascular Injury and Atherosclerosis, ed. Moore, S.(Marcel Dekker Inc., New York), pp. 1-22; Ross and Glomset, 295(7) N.Engl. J. Med. 369, 1976; and Ross, 295(8) N. Engl. J. Med. 420, 1976).Prominent among the mechanisms proposed to explain the pathogenesis ofatherosclerosis is the “response-to-injury” hypothesis (Ross, 314 N.Engl. J. Med. 488, 1986; Moore, (1981) in Vascular Injury andAtherosclerosis, ed. Moore, S. (Marcel Dekker Inc., New York), pp.131-148; and Moore, 29(5) Lab. Invest. 478, 1971) in which repeatedmechanical, hemodynamic and/or immunological injury to the endotheliumis the initiating event.

A prediction of this hypothesis is that the intimal and medial tissue inthe area comprising the atherosclerotic plaque will have a higher rateof cell turnover than the surrounding normal tissue. Several lines ofevidence support this prediction. Ross et al., (Ross and Glomset, 295(7)N. Engl. J. Med. 369, 1976; Ross, 295(8) N. Engl. J. Med. 420, 1976)showed that cultured smooth muscle cells from fibrous plaques displayedlower responsiveness to growth serum when compared to cells from theunderlying medial layer. Moss and Benditt 78(2) (1973) Am. J. Pathol.175, 1973, showed that the replicative life-span of cell cultures fromarterial plaques were equal to or less than the replicative life-spansfrom cells of nonplaque areas. Dartsch et al., 10 Arteriosclerosis 62,1992, showed that human smooth muscle cells obtained from primarystenosing lesions became senescent in culture far later than smoothmuscle cells from restenosing lesions. These results suggest that cellsderived from regions of atherosclerotic plaques undergo more cellulardivisions than cells from non-plaque areas hence rendering them olderand nearer to their maximum replicative capacity.

Thus, to understand the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, one mustexamine the alterations in the behavior of cell turnover on and adjacentto the arterial lesions. One requires a biomarker for the cell turnoverof intimal and medial tissue. Several workers have examined biomarkersfor the progression of atherosclerosis or for the propensity of anindividual to develop atherosclerosis. The former objective entailed themeasurement of a number of biochemical compounds which are detected inthe plasma but originate from the endothelium. Examples are serum TypeIII collagen (Bonnet et al., 18 Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 18, 1988), vonWillebrand's Factor (Factor VIII)(Baron et al., 10 Arteriosclerosis1074, 1990), cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein B (Stringer andKakkar, 4 (1990) Eur. J. Vasc. Sure. 513, 1990), lipoprotein (a)(Breckenridge, 143 Can. Med. Assoc. J. 115, 1990; Mezdour et al., 48Ann. Biol. Clin. (Paris) 139, 1990; and Scanu, 14 Clin. Cardiol. 135,1991), endothelin (Lerman et al., 325 N. Engl. J. Med. 997, 1991) andheparin-releasable Platelet Factor 4 (Sadayasu et al., 14 (1991) Clin.Cardiol. 725, 1991). A number of markers originate from the cell surface(Hanson et al., 11 (1991) Arterioscler. Thromb. 745, 1991; and Cybulskyand Girnbrone, 251 Science 788, 1991). Other markers monitorphysiological aberrations as a result of atherogenesis (Vita et al., 81(1990) Circulation 491, 1990). Candidate genes used to delineate theRFLP profile of those susceptible to atherogenesis (Sepehrnia et al., 38(1988) Hum. Hered. 136, 1988; and Chamberlain and Galton, 46 Br. Med.Bull. 917, 1990) have also been established. However, there have beenrelatively few markers developed to monitor directly cell turnover.

Applicant now shows that telomere length may serve as a biomarker ofcell turnover in tissues involved in atherogenesis. The results showthat endothelial cells lose telomeres in vitro as a function ofreplicative age and that in vivo telomere loss is generally greater fortissues of the atherosclerotic plaques compared to control tissue fromnon-plaque regions.

In general, telomere lengths were assessed by Southern analysis ofterminal restriction fragments (TRF, generated through HinfI/RsaIdigestion of human genomic DNA. TRFs were resolved by gelelectrophoresis and hybridized with a telomeric oligonucleotide(³²P-(CCCTAA)₃) (Seq. ID No. 4). Mean TRF length decreased as a functionof population doubling in human endothelial cell cultures from umbilicalveins (m=−190 bp/PD, P=0.01), and as a function of donor age in iliacarteries (m=−120 bp/PD, P=0.05) and iliac veins (m=−160 bp/PD, P=0.05).Thus, mean TRF length decreased with the in vitro age of all cellcultures. When early passage cell cultures were assessed for mean TRFlength as a function of donor age, there was a significant decrease foriliac arteries (m=−102 bp/y, P=0.01) but not for iliac vein (m=47 bp/y,P=0.14). Mean TRF length of medial tissue decreased significantly(P=0.05) as a function of donor age. Intimal tissues from one individualwho displayed extensive development of atherosclerotic plaques possessedmean TRF lengths close to those observed for senescent cells in vitro(−6 kbp). These observations indicate that telomere size indeed servesas a biomarker for the replicative history of intima and media and thatreplicative senescence of endothelial cells is involved inatherogenesis.

Specifically, the following materials and methods were used to achievethe results noted below.

Endothelial Cell Cultures

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUWVEC) were obtained from Dr.Thomas Maciag of the Jerome H. Holland Laboratory of the American RedCross. Human endothelial cells from the iliac arteries and iliac veinswere obtained from the Cell Repository of the National Institute ofAging (Camden, N.J.). Cells were grown at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ on 100 mmtissue plates whose interiors were treated with an overnight coating of0.4% gelatin (37° C.). The supplemented media consisted of M199, 15%fetal bovine serum, 5 U/ml heparin and 20 μg/ml crude Endothelial CellGrowth Supplement (Collaborative Research) or crude Endothelial CellGrowth Factor (Boehringer-Mannheim). Cultures were trypsinized (0.05%, 3minutes) at confluence, reseeded at 25% of the final cell density andrefed every 2-3 days.

Tissue Samples

Tissue samples from the aortic arch, abdominal aorta, iliac artery andiliac vein were obtained from autopsies at the Department of Pathology,Health Sciences Center, McMaster University. Post-mortem times rangedfrom 5 to 8 hours. The intima was obtained by cutting open the arteriesor veins and carefully scraping off the lumenal surface with a No. 10scalpel (Lance Blades, Sheffield) (Ryan, 56 Envir. Health Per. 103,1984). The resulting material was either treated directly for extractionof DNA or processed for cell culture.

The adventitial layer was removed by cutting or scraping the non-lumenalside of the vessel. The remaining medial layer was prepared for DNAextraction by freezing it in liquid-N₂ and grinding it in a liquid-N₂chilled mortar and pestle (Kennedy et al., 158 Exp. Cell Res. 445,1985). After the tissue was ground to a powder, 5 ml of frozen digestionBuffer (10 mM Tris; 100 mM NaCl; 25 mM EDTA; 0.5% SDS; pH 8.0) was addedand ground into the powderized tissue. The powder was then transferredto a 50 ml Falcon tube and incubated at 48° C. until thawed. ProteinaseK (10 mg/ml) was added to a final concentration of 0.2 mg/ml. After a12-16 hour incubation, the solution was removed from the water bath andeither prepared for DNA extraction or stored at 20° C.

Extraction and Restriction Enzyme Digestion of Genomic DNA

DNA was extracted as described previously (Harley et al., 345 Nature458, 1990; Allsopp et al., 89 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 10114, 1992).In brief, proteinase K-digested lysates were extracted twice with onevolume of phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) and once withchloroform. Nucleic acid was precipitated by adding 2 volumes of 100%EtOH to the aqueous layer, washed once with 70% EtOH and finallyresuspended in 100-200 μl of 10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.5. DNA wasquantified by fluorometry and 1 μg was digested with 1 unit each ofHinfI/RsaI for 3-24 hours at 37° C. Complete digestion was monitored bygel electrophoresis. The integrity of the DNA before and after digestionwas monitored in control experiments by gel electrophoresis.

Southern Blot Hybridization

Electrophoresis of digested genomic DNA was performed in 0.5% agarosegels in a standard Tris, sodium borate, EDTA buffer for a total of650-700 V/hr as described previously (Harley et al., 345 Nature 458,1990; Allsopp et al., 89 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 10114, 1992). Afterelectrophoresis, the gel was placed onto 3 mm Whatman filter paper anddried under vacuum for 25 minutes at 60° C. Gels were denatured bysoaking in 0.5 M NaOH, 1.5 M NaCl for 10 minutes at room temperature andthen neutralized through immersion in 0.5 M Tris, 1.5 M NaCl. GenomicDNA was immersed in standard hybridization solution (Harley et al., 345Nature 458, 1990) (6×SSC) with the telomeric ²P-(CCCTAA)₃ probe (Seq. IDNo. 4) for 12-16 hours at 37° C. The telomeric smears were visualizedthrough autoradiography on pre-flashed (OD₅₄₅=0.15) Kodak XAR-5 film.The mean lengths of the terminal restriction fragments (TRFs) werecalculated from densitometric scans of the developed films as describedpreviously (Harley et al., 345 Nature 458, 1990).

In vitro Results

To determine the feasibility of employing telomere length as a biomarkerfor cell turnover in atherosclerosis, we first examined the change intelomere length in cultured endothelial cells where cell division can bedirectly monitored in vitro. The DNA was digested with HinfI and RsaI,and the resulting terminal restriction fragments (TRF) were subjected toSouthern analysis. As in human skin fibroblasts (Allsopp et al., 89Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 10114, 1992), mean TRF length decreased as afunction of population doubling (PD). Thus, telomere length decreaseswith in vitro age of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Mean TRFlength decreased linearly (P=0.01) at a rate of 190±10 bp/PD (see FIG.4). The Y-intercept, which signifies the mean TRF at 0 PDL is 14.0 kbpwhile mean TRF at senescence was 5.7±0.4 kbp.

To prove that telomere length decrease occurred in endothelial cellsfrom other arterial and venous sources, mean TRF length versuspopulation doubling level (PDL) was determined for several strains ofendothelial cells from human iliac artery and human iliac vein. In bothiliac arteries and iliac veins there was a significant (P=0.05) lineardecrease in mean TRF length with age of culture: 120±60 bp perpopulation doubling for the iliac artery and 160±30 bp per populationdoubling for the iliac veins from endothelial cells.

In vivo Results

Formation of atherosclerotic plaques occurs more often in the iliacartery than in the iliac vein (Crawford, (1982) Pathology ofAtherosclerosis (Butterworth and Co. Ltd., U.K.), p. 187-199), thus itis expected that turnover of intimal tissue in vivo from the iliacartery should be greater than that from the iliac veins. To test this,nine different strains of endothelial cell cultures from iliac arteriesand veins of donors ranging in age from 14-58 years of age werecultivated and TRF lengths from the earliest possible PDL weredetermined (FIG. 5).

Consistent with the hypothesis of greater cell turnover in vivo inarteries than in veins, the rate of decrease in mean TRF length, wassignificant over the age range 20-60 years for iliac arteries (−100bp/yr, P=0.01) and greater than for the iliac veins (−47 bp/yr, P=0.14).Among the nine strains of endothelial cells, there were cultures fromthe iliac artery and iliac vein from the same individuals for 3 of thedonors, aged 21, 47 and 49 years. There was a significantly shorter meanTRF length in the cultures of iliac artery cells as compared to thevenous cells for the two older donors. The younger donor showed nosignificant difference in mean TRF length between the two cultures,possibly reflecting relatively little difference in cell turnoverbetween the vessels of the 21-year old donor.

Differences in mean TRF length of the cell cultures from iliac arteriesand iliac veins in donors of different ages will reflect not onlydifferences in original mean TRF length of the primary tissues but alsodifferences in the rate of telomere loss between the different culturesin vitro during the time required to collect sufficient cells foranalysis (approximately 5-10 PDL). To determine if there is arelationship between cell turnover and the extent of atheroscleroticplaque formation, we examined mean TRF length in primary tissue.Autopsies from 3, 11, 12, 14, 18, 26, 75-year old females and a 77-yearold male were performed. Sections of the aortic arch, abdominal aorta,iliac artery and iliac vein were taken and the intimal and medialtissues separated and assessed for TRF length.

Sufficient intimal tissue could be obtained from the aortic arch,abdominal aorta, iliac arteries and iliac veins of 3 donors (aged 27, 75and 77 years) for TRF analysis. There was a striking difference betweenthe mean TRF lengths averaged over these sites in the 27-year old female(10.4±0.7 kbp) versus the 75-year old (8.8+0.6 kbp) and the 77-year oldmale (6.3+0.4 kbp). It is noteworthy that the 77-year old male hadextensive atherosclerotic lesions in his vasculature and that the meanTRF length of his intimal tissue is close to that of endothelial cells,at senescence in vitro (approximately 6 kbp, FIG. 4).

FIG. 6 shows that mean TRF of medial tissue (from the aortic arch)decreases with donor age at a small but significant rate (47 bp/yr,P=0.05). Thus, medial cells turnover in vivo occurs at a rate less thanthat of the venous or arterial endothelial cells.

In general, telomere loss in medial tissue underlying an atheroscleroticplaque was greater than those in non-plaque regions (Table 1). With the75-year old female, mean TRF was significantly reduced in medial DNAfrom the plaque regions versus the non-plaque regions of both the aorticarch (P=0.04) and the abdominal aorta (P=0.01). For the 77-year oldmale, this was observed in the abdominal aorta (P=0.01).

TABLE 1 Mean TRF values for primary medial tissues of plaque andnon-plaque areas Plaque Region Non-Plaque Region P 75-year old DonorAortic Arch 10.2 ± 0.5  11.1 ± 0.1  0.04 Abdominal Aorta 9.5 ± 0.6 11.0± 0.1  0.01 77-year old Donor Aortic Arch 8.2 ± 0.4 8.4 ± 0.2 NSAbdominal Aorta 7.1 ± 0.1 8.2 ± 0.4 0.01

These results show that mean TRF length decreases as a function of donorage for primary medial and intimal tissue, suggesting that cell turnoverdoes occur in cardiovascular tissue. The decrease in mean TRF length forplaque regions versus clear regions of medial tissue from the same bloodvessel is consistent with augmented cell turnover of tissue associatedwith atherosclerotic plaques. Thus, the results indicate thatmeasurement of telomere length provides a biomarker for alterations ofcellular turnover in tissues associated with cardiovascular diseases,i.e., cells of the intima and media.

Measurement of telomere length is a direct register of proliferativehistory but to obtain telomeric DNA one must obtain a biopsy ofendothelial tissue. Since removal of the endothelium in itself caninduce plaque formation, the biopsy strategy obviously entails ethicaland practical problems. Based upon experience with autopsy samples onerequires a minimal area of 1 cm² in order to perform a Southern analysisas described in this paper. For a practical biopsy, this is untenable. Adetection technique to circumvent this problem may be confocalfluorescent microscopy.

Example 4

Simplified Test for Telomere Length

Telomere length has been found to be the best predictor of the remaininglifespan of cells cultured from donors of different ages. The ability tomeasure telomere length thus has significant clinical use. Because oftheir simple repetitive nature, telomeres lack DNA sequences recognizedby many restriction enzymes. One way to measure telomere length is todigest DNA with restriction enzymes with 4-base recognition sites, whichcuts most of the DNA into very small pieces and leaves the telomeres inrelative large TRFs (Terminal Restriction Fragments). A Southern blot ofthe DNA is then probed with a radioactive TTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGG (Seq. IDNo. 5) oligonucleotide, and the size of the TRF determined.

A much simpler method to measure telomere length exploits the fact thatthe telomere sequence lacks guanidine residues in the C-rich strand.Genomic DNA can be melted and mixed with the DNA synthesis primerCCCTAACCCTAACCCTAACCCTAA (Seq. ID No. 6) in the presence of DNApolymerase and only three deoxynucleotides (DATP, dTTP and radioactivedCTP). Rare complementary sequences scattered throughout the genomewould fail to extend due to the lack of dGTP. The length of the extendedDNA can then be determined from a simple gel electrophoresis. The amountof DNA synthesized (counts incorporated per μg of DNA) will be directlyproportional to telomere length, and for diagnostic purposes a simplemeasure of radioactivity would then suffice to quantitate telomerelength.

Example 5

Identification of DNA Sequences Near Telomeres

There are good reasons to believe that the regulatory factors thatcontrol cellular and organismal senescence are located near telomeres,and are themselves regulated by the length of the adjacent telomere. Itis thus important to identify and clone them in order to be able tounderstand and manipulate the aging process. In addition, there is greatinterest in identifying unique telomeric DNA within the human genomeproject, since telomeric markers for mapping purposes are lacking forthe ends of the chromosomes.

In one method, large telomeric DNA is purified as follows. Abiotinylated CCCTAACCCTAA (Seq. ID No. 7) oligonucleotide is used toprime DNA synthesis in double-stranded genomic DNA. The only sequenceswith which this oligonucleotide can anneal will be the single-strandedbase overhangs at telomere ends. The extended DNA will then be digestedwith a restriction enzyme such as NotI to produce large restrictionfragments. Biotinylated fragments are retrieved using streptavidincoated magnetic beads, and analyzed by pulsed field electrophoresis. 46fragments (one for each end of the 23 human chromosomes) are produced.

Multiple strategies can be used to pursue the successful isolation oflarge telomeric DNA. The DNA can be labeled and used to screen cDNAlibraries in order to identify genes located near telomeres. Theexpression of these cDNAs can then be examined in young versus old cellsin order to identify those which are differentially expressed as afunction of cellular senescence, and which are thus candidates to beregulatory factors that control aging.

The purified telomeric DNA can also be digested with additionalrestriction enzymes, mixed with 100-fold excess of genomic DNA, meltedand reannealed. Under these circumstances, the repetitive sequences inthe telomeric DNA will anneal with genomic DNA while unique sequences inthe purified DNA will self-anneal. Only the self-annealed uniquesequences will contain restriction overhangs at each end, and thus asimple cloning of the annealed DNA will result in the successful cloningof only unique fragments.

Example 6

Telomere Loss in Down's Syndrome Patients

Loss of telomeric DNA from human chromosomes may ultimately cause cellcycle exit during replicative senescence. Since lymphocytes have alimited replicative capacity and blood cells were previously shown tolose telomeric DNA during aging in vivo, we wished to determine whetheraccelerated telomere loss is associated with the prematureimmunosenescence of lymphocytes in individuals with Down's Syndrome(DS), and whether telomeric DNA is also lost during aging of lymphocytesin vitro.

To investigate the effects of aging and trisomy 21 on telomere loss invivo, genomic DNA was isolated from peripheral blood lymphocytes of 140individuals (0-107 y) and 21 DS patients (0-45 y). Digestion withrestriction enzymes HinfI and RsaI generated terminal restrictionfragments (TRFs) which can be detected by Southern analysis using atelomere-specific probe, (³²P-(CCCTAA)₃). The rate of telomere loss wascalculated from the decrease in mean TRF length as a function of donorage. DS patients showed a significantly higher rate of telomere losswith donor age (133±15 bp/y) compared to age-matched controls (41±7.7bp/y) (P<0.0005), indicating that accelerated telomere loss is abiomarker of premature immunosenescence of DS patients, and may play arole in this process.

Telomere loss during aging in vitro was calculated for lymphocytes fromtwo normal individuals grown in culture for 20-30 population doubling.The rate of telomere loss was 90 bp/cell doubling, that is, it wascomparable to that seen in other somatic cells. Telomere lengths oflymphocytes from centenarians and from older DS patients were similar tothose of senescent lymphocytes in culture, which suggests thatreplicative senescence could partially account for aging of the immunesystem in DS patients and elderly individuals.

The following materials and methods were used to obtain the resultsprovided below.

Culture of Human Peripheral Blood T Lymphocytes

Adult peripheral blood samples were collected, and mononuclear cellswere isolated by Ficoll-Hypaque gradient centrifugation thencryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. Cultures were initiated by mixing 10⁻⁶mononuclear cells with 10⁶ irradiated (8000 Rad) lymphoblastoid cells(Epstein-Barr virus transformed B cells), or 10⁶ mononuclear cells with10 μg/ml phytohemagglutinin (PHA-P, Difco) in each well of a 48-wellcluster plate (Costar). After 8 to 11 days, cells were washed and platedin 2 ml wells of 24-well cluster plates at a concentration of2-4×10⁵/ml. Cultures were passaged every three to four days, or wheneverviable cell concentration (determined by trypan blue exclusion) reached≧8×10⁵/ml. Cultures were terminated when they showed no proliferativeresponse to irradiated lymphoblastoid cells and/or when there were noviable cells present in the entire visual field of the haemocytometer.Once transferred to the 2 ml wells, cells were continuously exposed to25 U/ml of recombinant interleukin-2 (Amgen). The media used were (a)RPM1 (Irvine Scientific) supplemented with 10 to 20% fetal calf serum, 2mM glutamine, and 1 mM Hepes; (b) AIM V™, a DMEM/nutrient mixture F-12basal medium, containing purified human albumin, transferrin, andrecombinant insulin (Gibco), supplemented with 25% Ex-cyte (an aqueousmixture of lipoprotein, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids,(Miles Diagnostics).

At each cell passage, the number of population doubling (PD) wascalculated according to the formula:

PD=ln(final viable cell no. initial cell no.)/ln2.

Isolation of DNA

PBLs (including=15% monocytes) were isolated using Ficoll-Hypaquegradient centrifugation (Boyum et al., 21(97) Scan. J. Clin. Lab.Invest. 77, 1968) and washed 3 times in PBS. Cell pellets wereresuspended in 500 μl of proteinase K digestion buffer (100 mM NaCl, 10mM Tris pH 8, 5 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS) containing 0.1 mg/ml proteinase K andincubated at 48° C. overnight. Lysates were extracted twice withphenol/chloroformisoamyl alcohol (25:24:1 v/v/v) and once withchloroform. DNA was precipitated with 95% ethanol and dissolved in TE(10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH=8).

Analysis of Telomeric DNA

Genomic DNA (10 μg) was digested with HinfI and RsaI (BRL) (20 U each),re-extracted as above, precipitated with 95% ethanol, washed with 70%ethanol, dissolved in 50 μl TE, and quantified by fluorometry. One gg ofdigested DNA was resolved by electrophoresis in 0.5% (w/v) agarose gelspoured on Gel Bound (FMC Bioproducts) for 700 V-h. Gels were dried at60° C. for 30 minutes, denatured, neutralized, and probed with 5′end-labeled ³²P-(CCCTAA) as described above. Autoradiograms exposedwithin the linear range of signal response were scanned with a Hoeferdensitometer. The signal was digitized and subdivided into 1 kbpintervals from 2 kbp to 21 kbp for calculation of the mean TRF length(L) using the formula L=Σ, (OD_(i)L_(i))/ΣOD_(i), whereOD_(i)=integrated signal in interval i, and L=TRF length at themid-point of interval i.

TRF Length vs. Age

When measured as a function of donor age, mean TRF length in PBS of 140unrelated normal individuals (aged 0-107 y) declined at a rate of 41±2.6bp/y (p<0.00005, r-0.83). This rate of TRF loss for PBLs is close tothat previously found for peripheral blood cells by Hastie et al., 346Nature 866, 1990. When our data were separated according to gender itwas noticed that males lost telomeric DNA at a rate slightly faster thanthat of females (50±4.2 vs 40±3.6 bp/y), but this difference did notreach statistical significance (p=0.1). The 18 centenarians (aged 99-107y) among our population of normal individuals had a mean TRF length of5.28±0.4 kbp (FIG. 7). Interestingly, the standard deviation of mean TRFvalues for the centenarians (0.4 kbp) was much smaller than that ofother age groups. Although it is possible that this represents selectionof a more homogeneous population of cells with age, it is also possiblethat the group of centenarians were less genetically diverse than theyounger populations in our study.

Mean TRF length was also analyzed in PBLs of 21 Down's Syndromeindividuals (aged 2-45 y) and the rate of loss was compared to 68age-matched controls (aged 0-43 y). We found that cells from DS patientsshowed a significantly greater rate of telomere loss (133±15 bp/y vs41±7.7 bp/y; one tailed t-test, t=5.71, p<0.0005) (FIG. 8).

To determine the rate of telomere loss as a function of cell doubling,we cultured normal lymphocytes from 2 individuals in vitro untilreplicative senescence and measured mean TRF length at severalpopulation doubling levels (FIG. 9). Mean TRF length decreased 90bp/population doubling in these strains, within the range observed forother human somatic cell types. The mean TRF length at senescence forthe lymphocyte cell strains shown here and one other analyzed atterminal passage (FIG. 9), was 5.1±0.35 kbp. The observed TRF values invivo for PBLs of centenarians (5.3±0.4 kbp) and old DS patients(4.89±0.59 kbp), were close to this value, suggesting that a fraction ofthe cells from these individuals were close to the limit of theirreplicative capacity.

The results showing that telomeres in PBLs from normal individualsshorten during aging in vivo and in vitro extend similar observations onhuman fibroblasts (Harley et al., 345 Nature 458, 1990) and support thehypothesis that telomere loss is involved in replicative senescence. Wealso found that in Down's Syndrome, the rate of telomere loss in PBS invivo was significantly higher than that in age-matched normal donors.Thus, accelerated telomere loss in PBS of trisomy 21, a syndromecharacterized by premature immunosenescence and other features ofaccelerated aging (Martin, “Genetic Syndromes in Man with PotentialRelevance to the Pathobiology of Aging”, in: Genetic Effects on Aging,Bergsma, D. and Harrison D. E. (eds.), pp. 5-39, Birth Defects: Originalarticle series, no. 14, New York: Alan R. Liss (1978)), could reflectearly senescence of lymphocytes.

The increased rate of telomere loss in PBS from DS patients couldreflect a higher turnover rate of cells in vivo due to reduced viabilityof the trisomy 21 cells. However, it is also possible that the rate oftelomere loss in PBS from DS patients is greater per cell doubling thanthat in normal individuals.

The pathology of DS is similar in many ways to normal aging. Prematuresenescence of the immune system possibly plays a role in this similaritysince DS patients have a high incidence of cancer and suffer fromautoimmunity. In support of this idea, lymphocytes of older DS patientsand old individuals share several characteristics, including diminishedresponse of T-cells to activate and proliferate in response to antigen,low replicative capacity, and reduced B- and T-cell counts (Franceschiet al., 621 Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 428, 1991). Our finding that telomerelength decreased faster in DS patients than normal individuals, and thatthe mean TRF length in centenarians and old DS patients in vivo weresimilar to that of senescent lymphocytes in vitro (=5 kbp)1 extendsthese observations. Moreover, these data suggest that replicativesenescence within the lymphoid lineage in vivo contributes to thecompromised immune system of both elderly individuals and Down'sSyndrome patients.

Example 7

Ovarian Cancer and Telomerase Activity

The following is an example of a method by which telomerase activity isshown to correlate with the presence of cancer cells. In addition, thelength of TRF was determined as an indication of the presence of tumorcells. Generally, it was found that tumor cells had significantly lowerTRF values than surrounding normal cells, and had telomerase activity.Thus, these two features are markers for the presence of tumor cells.

The following methods were used to obtain these results:

Separation of Tumor and Non-tumor Cells

In one method, ascitic fluid was obtained by either diagnosticlaparotomy or therapeutic paracentesis (from patients diagnosed ashaving ovarian carcinoma), and centrifuged at 600×g for 10 minutes at 4°C. The cell pellet was washed twice in 10 to 30 ml of phosphate bufferedsaline (PBS: 2.7 mM KCl, 1.5 mM KH₂PO₄, 137 mM NaCl and 8 mM Na₂HPO₄)and centrifuged at 570×g for 4 minutes at 4° C. After the final wash thecell pellet was resuspended in 20 ml of PBS and filtered through a 30 or10 Am nylon mesh filter (Spectrum) which retains the tumor clumps butnot single cells. The filters were backwashed to liberate highlypurified tumor clumps. The flow-through was a combination offibroblasts, lymphocytes and tumor cells.

In another method ascitic fluid cells were collected and washed asdescribed above. The cellular pellet was resuspended in a-MEM with 10%fetal calf serum and cultured in 150 mm dishes. After 12 hours the mediawas removed and new plates were used to separate the adheringfibroblasts from the non-adhering cells in the medium. After 12 hoursthe media containing mostly tumor clumps was removed from the secondplates and allowed to adhere in DMA F12 medium supplemented with 3%fetal calf serum, 5 ng/ml EGF, 5 μg/ml insulin, 10 gg/ml humantransferrin, 5×10⁻⁵ M phosphoethanolamine and 5×10⁻⁵ M ethanolamine.These tumor cells were cultured for DNA analysis and S100 extracts.

DNA Extraction

Cells were lysed and proteins were digested in 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0),100 mM NaCl, 25 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS, 0.1 mg/ml proteinase K at 48° C.overnight. Following 2 extractions with phenol and 1 with chloroform,DNA was precipitated with ethanol and dissolved in 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH8.0), 1 mM EDTA (TE).

Determination of TRF Length and Amount of Telomeric DNA

Genomic DNA was digested with HinfI and RsaI, extracted and precipitatedas above, and redissolved in TE. DNA concentration was measured byfluorometry (Morgan et al., 7 Nucleic Acids Res. 547, 1979). DNA samples(1 μg each) were loaded onto a 0.5% agarose gel and electrophoresed for13 hours at 90 V. The gel was dried at 60° C. for 30 minutes, denaturedin 1.5 M NaCl and 0.5 M NaOH for 15 minutes, neutralized in 1.5 M NaCl,0.5 M Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) for 10 minutes and hybridized to a 5′³²P(CCCTAA)₃ telomeric probe in 5×SSC (750 mM NaCl and 75 mM sodiumcitrate), 5× Denhart's solution (Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor(1982)) and 0.1× P wash (0.5 mM pyrophosphate, 10 mM Na₂HPO₄) at 37° C.for 12 hours. Following three high stringency washes in 0.24×SSC at20-22° C. (7 minutes each), the gel was autoradiographed on pre-flashed(OD=0.15) Kodak XAR-5 X-ray films for 3 days with enhancing screens.Each lane was scanned with a densitometer and the data used to determinethe amount of telomeric DNA and the mean TRF length as previouslydescribed (Harley et al., 345 Nature 458, 1990).

Preparations of S-100 Cell Extracts

A minimum of 6×10⁸ cells were used for each extract. Ascitic fluid orpurified ascitic fluid tumor cells (by the first method described above)were centrifuged at 570×g for 4 minutes at 4° C. Ascitic fluid tumorcells separated by the second method described above (grown inmonolayer) were harvested by scraping with a rubber policeman, andcentrifuged as above. The pellets were rinsed twice in cold PBS followedby centrifugation as above. The final pellet was rinsed in cold 2.3×Hypo buffer (1× Hypo buffer: 10 mM Hepes (pH 8.0)), 3 mM KCl, 1 mMMgCl₂, 1 mM DTT, 0.1 mM PMSF and 10 U/ml of RNAsin, 1 μM leupeptin and10 μM pepstatin A, centrifuged for 5 minutes and resuspended in 0.75volumes of 2.3× Hypo buffer. After incubation on ice for 10 minutes thesample was transferred to an ice cold 7 or 1 ml Dounce homogenizer andhomogenized on ice using a B pestle (25-55 μm clearance). After afurther 30 minutes on ice the samples having a volume larger than 1 mlwere centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10,000 rpm (16,000×g) at 4° C. in aBeckman J3-13.1 swinging bucket rotor. One-fiftieth volume of 5 M NaClwas added, and the samples supernatant were centrifuged for 1 hour at38,000 rpm (100,000×g) at 4° C. in a Beckman Ti50 rotor. Glycerol wasadded to a final concentration of 20% and the extract aliquoted andstored at −70° C. Samples less than 1 ml were centrifuged at 55,000 rpmfor 1 hour at 4° C. in a TLA 100.2 rotor (Beckman) and NaCl and glycerolwere added to the supernatant as above. Protein concentration in atypical extract was approximately 4 mg/ml.

Telomerase Assay

Telomerase activity was assayed by a modification of the method ofMorin, 59 Cell 521, 1989. Aliquots (20 μl) of S-100 cell extract werediluted to a final volume of 40 Al containing 2 mM DATP, 2 mM dTTP, 1 mMMgCl₂, 1 μM (TTAGGG)₃ primer, 3.13 μM (50 μCi) a-³²P-dGTP (400Ci/mmole), 1 mM spermidine, 5 mM β-mercaptoethanol, 50 mM potassiumacetate, and 50 mM Tris-acetate (pH 8.5). In some experiments reactionvolumes were doubled. The reactions were incubated for 60 minutes at 30°C. and stopped by addition of 50 μl of 20 mM EDTA and 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH7.5) containing 0.1 mg/ml RNAseA, followed by incubation for 15 minutesat 37° C. To eliminate proteins, 50 μl of 0.3 mg/ml Proteinase K in 10mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 0.5% SDS was added for 10 minutes at 37° C.Following extraction with phenol and chloroform, unincorporateda-³²P-dGTP was separated by centrifuging the samples for 4 minutes at500 g in a swinging bucket rotor through NICK SPIN columns (Pharmacia).DNA was precipitated by the addition of 5.3 μl of 4 M NaCl, 4 μg ofcarrier tRNA and 500 μl of ethanol at −20° C. DNA pellets wereresuspended in 3 Al of formamide loading dye, boiled for 1 minute,chilled on ice and loaded onto an 8% polyacrylamide, 7 M urea sequencinggel and run at 1700 V for 2 hours using 0.6× TBE buffer. Dried gels wereexposed to Kodak XAR-5 pre-flashed film at −70° C. with enhancing screenor to phosphoimager screens (Molecular Dynamics) for 7 days.

The results of the above experiments are shown in tables 2 and 3 below:

TABLE 2 Characteristics of ATCC Ovarian Carcinoma Cell Lines Cell lineMean TRF Length (kbp) Telomerase Activity HEY stable at 3.7 + CAOV-3stable at 3.7 N.D. SKOV-3 Increases at 60 bp/pd N.D.

TABLE 3 Characteristics of Ovarian Carcinoma Tumor cells from AsciticFluid Mean TRF Telomerase Patient Description Length (kbp) ActivityPres-3 Purified tumor cells 3.7 + Mac-2 Purified tumor cells 3.7 N.D.Sib-1 Purified tumor cells 4.2 N.D. Ric 207 Purified tumor cells 3.3N.D. Cra-1 Purified tumor cells 5.2 N.D. Ing-1 Purified tumor cells 5.8N.D. Lep-1 Purified tumor cells 5.8 N.D. Lep-4 Purified tumor cells 5.6N.D. Sol-1 Purified tumor cells 5.6 N.D. Rud-1 Ascitic fluid cells 3.4 +Murr-1 Ascitic fluid cells 3.8 + Dem-1 Ascitic fluid cells N.D. + Cas-1Ascitic fluid cells 5.3 + Wad-1,2 Ascitic fluid cells 4.9  N.D.* N.D. =not determined *High background precluded detection

Table 4 shows the TRF length of cells from ascitic fluid. A minimum of 2autoradiographs were scanned with a densitometer over the size range2-21 kbp, and the densitometric values used to determine mean TRF lengthin kbp. Average standard deviation of the data was 0.5 kbp with thelargest deviation being 2 kbp. The value following the three characterpatient code refers to the paracentesis number (i.e., OC1-1 is the firstsample from patient OC1). Samples defined as E (early) were obtainednear the time of presentation while samples L (late) were obtained neardeath. Paracenteses were performed 4 to 15 times over the course of 4 to22 months.

TABLE 4 Unfractionated Fractionated Cultured cells TRF Normal TumourTumour* Patient (kbp) Patient TRF (kbp) TRF (kbp) Patient TRF (kbp)OC1-1 3.8 OC5-1 7.0 5.0 OC18-2 3.4 OC2-1 5.5 OC6-1 9.2 5.4 OC19-3 3.4OC3-1 5.4 OC7-1 8.0 5.4 OC20-1 4.2 -2 4.4 OC8-1 7.7 4.3 OC21-1 3.3 OC4-14.5 OC9-1 5.2 OC5-1 4.3 OC10-1 3.9 OC22-13 6.9 OC11-2 3.7 OC12-1 3.8OC13-1 5.1 Serial Samples OC14-1 (E) 9.4 5.0 -4 (L) 9.3 5.2 OC15-1 (E)7.3 4.1 -5 (L) 4.7 OC16-1 (E) 3.9 -2 (E) 3.4 -7 (L) 3.9 OC17-1 (E) 7.74.3 -15 (L) 4.7 Means†: 4.7 ± 0.7 8.2 ± 0.9 4.5 ± 0.6 3.7 ± 0.5 (4.2 ±1.4)‡ *mean TRF length was determined for each of the samples over thecourse of at least 30 PD. Values were averaged since TRFs were stable inall populations †average and standard deviation of the mean TRF lengthsof all samples ‡mean value including OC22-13

Table 5 shows the telomerase activity in normal and tumor cells.Leukocytes and acsites cells were isolated and ascitic fluid cellsfractionated into normal and tumor fractions and assayed for telomeraseactivity. Protein concntration in all extracts was <2 mg/ml, i.e., 20fold higher than the lowest concentration at which activity was detectedin control 293 CSH extract.

TABLE 5 Unfractionated Fractionated Telomerase Telomerase activityPatient activity Patient Normal Tumour OC4-1 + OC19-3 N.D. + -5 + OC17-1— N.D. OC2-1 ± OC8-1 — N.D. OC1-1 + LEK — N.D. OC23-1 +

In the TRF assay, each tumor clump had significantly lower TRF lengthsthan associated normal cells. (See FIG. 10).

In the telomerase assay, significantly greater telomerase activity wasevident in the ascitic fluid of certain patients than in the controltumor lines HEY and PRES, or the control cell line 293 CSH (FIGS. 11,33).

Example 8

Effect of HIV Infection on TRF Length

HIV infection leads to an acute viral infection manifesting itself as avirus-like syndrome, followed by a prolonged period of latencycharacterized by an absence of signs and symptoms. During this prolongedasymptomatic period (lasting usually 7-10 years), there is no diagnosticavailable for staging the course of the infection other than thepresence or absence of antibodies to viral coat proteins. This doeslittle to stage the disease or to help the physician measure theeffectiveness of prophylactic agents.

While Meyaard et al., 257 Science 217, 1992, propose a programmed celldeath for CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ cells of an HIV-infected individual, we proposethat during those 7 to 10 years the immune system is able to keep theinfection relatively repressed, but there is markedly increased turnoverof the infected CD4⁺ T-cells. This may be due in part to viral-mediatedcell destruction. We propose that this essentially accelerates thereplicative senescence of this particular subpopulation of T-cells, andwith time results in a population of precursor pluripotent cells withmarkedly reduced proliferative capacity. Finally, this results in CD4⁺T-cells that are relatively unresponsive to stimuli to proliferate, asis typical of the replicative senescence of the cells observed in vitro.

We also propose that the replicative capacity of total peripherallymphocytes or CD4⁺ cells in particular, can be effectively determinedby assaying telomere repeat length utilizing the method described above,e.g., with the oligonucleotide probe 5′ TTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAGGG (or oneof similar or complementary sequence) hybridized to CD4⁺ lymphocyte DNAisolated from the patient along with molecular size markers. Theseassays allow the physician to chart the course of the disease during thelong intervening asymptomatic period, and to score the effectiveness ofprophylactic therapeutics.

In order to determine whether TRF length is a useful marker in diagnosisof HIV infection, CD4⁺ cell counting was performed on asymptomaticHIV-infected individuals, and compared to TRF length, measured asdiscussed above. As shown above, peripheral lymphocytes start witharound 10 kb TRF length at birth, and reach a TRF length of 5.0 atapproximately age 120. The results were as follows:

A 30 year old HIV+ with a CD4 count of 476 had a TRF of 7.6.

A 46 year old HIV− control, had a TRF of 7.0.

A 34 year old HIV+ with a CD4 count of 336, had a TRF of 7.7.

A 46 year old HIV− control, had a TRF of 7.1.

A 32 year old HIV+ with a CD4 count of 448, had a TRF of 6.9.

A 33 year old HIV+ with a CD4 count of 358, had a TRF of 5.0 (i.e., at alength observed for senescent cells)

The results indicate that the 33 year old HIV+ patient has a senescenttelomere length in his CD4⁺ cells, which means that they are at the endof their replicative capacity. In contrast, the CD4⁺ count provided noindication of the status of this patient. Indeed, one patient actuallyhad a lower CD4⁺ count.

Two weeks after the assay was performed, this patient experienced aprecipitous drop in CD4⁺ count, going from 358 to 159, and was thereforediagnosed AIDS, and rapidly acquired leukoplakia on the tongue. Theother patients remain asymptomatic. Thus, this diagnostic procedure isable to distinguish patients near the end of the course of HIVinfection, whereas the previously used marker (CD4⁺ count) could not.

The accelerated replicative senescence of CD4⁺ lymphocytes during thecourse of HIV infection provides an appropriate indication for therapiesdesigned to forestall telomere shortening, e.g., utilizing the CTOoligonucleotide described above. In addition, as described above, CD4⁺cells of an individual at an early stage of infection can be banked forlater administration to the individual. The efficacy of drugs, such asAZT, may also be determined to study whether the drug slows the rate ofproliferation of CD4⁺ cells, and is thus useful at all stages of thedisease. If not, it can be administered only when necessary during thecourse of the disease.

Example 9

Telomere Shortening in Human Mammary Epithelial(HME) Cells

Referring to FIG. 12, when digested with a restriction enzyme having a4-base recognition site (like Hinf1), most genomic DNA is digested intosmall fragments. However, because the repetitive telomeric sequenceslack restriction sites, telomeres retain relatively large terminalrestriction fragments (TRFs) composed of 2-5 Kb of subtelomeric DNA andage-dependent amounts of telomeric repeats. As previously described forhuman fibroblasts, lymphocytes and endothelial cells, telomere lengthshortens in normal human mammary epithelial cells during in vitrocellular senescence (compare TRF length in lanes 1 (PDL 21) and 2 (PDL40)). In human mammary epithelial cells expressing E6 of human papillomavirus 16, the TRF length continues to shorten during the extendedlifespan period until crisis and subsequently immortalization occurs(lane 3 (PDL 68)). The TRFs generally stabilize in immortalized cells(lane 4 (PDL 81) and lane 5 (PDL 107)) consistent with the re-expressionof telomerase activity.

Example 10

Slowing Telomere Loss in Mammary Epithelial Cells Results in IncreasedReplicative Lifespan

Normal human mammary epithelial cells can be established from organoids(obtained from reduction mammoplasty) and can be cultured in definedcondition in a standard medium (MCDB170) devoid of serum. Epithelialcells with typical cobblestone morphology spread around organoids platedin this medium. After the first subcultivation these cultures enter aperiod of growth arrest for 2-3 weeks until a population of small,highly birefringent and rapidly dividing cells expand among largercells. The medium (MCDB 104) apparently selects for a lessdifferentiated cell type with increased growth potential. These cellscan be subcultured for 40-45 additional doubling before undergoingcellular senescence.

As in Example 1, the change in proliferative lifespan and rate oftelomere shortening in cultured mammary epithelial cells treated withthe indicated amounts of CTO (occasionally referred to as C-RichTerminal Repeat (CTR)) versus control random oligonucleotides. Normalhuman mammary epithelial cells from a donor (31) were infected with theE6 gene of human papilloma virus 16. This gene product binds p53 proteinand permits HME31 cells to have extended life span by proliferating fromPDL 42 to PDL 62 when crisis occurs. During this extended lifespanperiod the TRFs shorten from an average of approximately 5 kb to 2.5 kb(compare in FIG. 12 HME31 PD 40 to HME31E6 PD 68).

As is demonstrated in FIG. 13, experiments initiated using HME31E6 cellsat PDL 36 were cultured in the presence of 3, 10, 30 and 100 μM CTO. Ascontrols the cells were cultured without oligonucleotides (nil) or with30 μM random oligonucleotide. FIG. 13 demonstrates that compared to thenil control and the 30 μM random oligonucleotide, there was a doserelated retardation of TRF shortening between PDL 36 and 50. This ismost easily seen by examining the subpopulation of telomere TRFs thatmigrate more slowly than the rest, giving a discrete trailing band.Cells were maintained in logarithmic growth with medium changed andfresh oligonucleotide added three times per week.

Human mammary epithelial cells expressing HPV16 E6 bypass M1 and haveextended replicative lifespan. HME31 cells normally senesce at PDL42-45. When expressing E6 they will bypass M1 and divide until theyreach crisis (M2) at PDL 53-62. The TRFs in HME31 (E6) cells at PDL 40are approximately 5-6 Kb while at PDL 62 they are 3-4 Kb (see FIG. 12).As is demonstrated in FIG. 17, experiments initiated using HME31E6 cellsat PDL 36 were cultured in the presence of 30 μM and 100 μM CTR indefined medium without serum. As controls, the cells were culturedwithout oligonucleotide (control), or with a 30 μM randomoligonucleotide with the base content matched to the CTRoligonucleotide. FIG. 17 demonstrates that compared to the control andthe 30 μM random oligonucleotide, there was a dose-related extension ofthe replicative lifespan in cells treated with CTR oligonucleotides. Thecontrol cells divided approximately 20 times during the experiment,whereas the CTR-treated cells divided at least 40-50 times. Theseresults correlate well with the retardation of telomere shorteningobserved in FIG. 13.

Example 11

Extension of Life Span of IMR90 Fibroblasts

Referring to FIG. 14, IMR-90 lung fibroblasts TRFat PDL 30 were treatedwith 10 μM, 30 μM or 100 μM phosphodiester CTO or with only mediaaddition (control). The cells were cultured in medium containing regulardefined supplemented calf serum. The cells were passaged in 24 welldishes and subcultivated by trypsinization upon reaching confluency at25,000 cells per well. The cells were fed medium containingoligonucleotides at various concentrations daily. As a control, cellswere fed identical medium without oligonucleotides. As is illustrated inFIG. 14, there was approximately a 12-15% extension of total life spanwith CTO. In these experiments the control cells divided approximately15-18 times during the experiment, whereas the treated cells divided23-26 times. IMR-90 telomeres shorten approximately 50 b.p. per divisionand the TRF length of the control IMR-90 fibroblasts at senescence wasapproximately 9 kb. Since the 100 μM CTO-treated IMR-90 cells senescedat PDL 55, the predicted difference in the rate of TRF loss between thecontrol and the 100 μM CTO (9 kb vs 9.4 kb) is too small to be resolvedusing current techniques.

Example 12

GTO Experiments

As in Example 2, an immortalized human fibroblast cell line, IDH4, whichhas very short TRFs, was incubated with GTO oligonucleotide. Referringto FIGS. 15 and 16, cells were incubated in regular culture mediumcontaining serum in the presence of 10 μM, 30 μM and 100 μM GTO. Thecells were fed fresh phosphodiester GTO oligonucleotide every other dayand subcultured when confluent for a total of 90 days. The cells werestill growing in GTO after 90 days at all concentrations used eventhough they grew more slowly at the higher GTO concentrations and wentthrough fewer population doubling (control, 45 PDL; 10 μM GTO 40 PDL; 30μM 35 PDL; 100 μM 25 PDL). When TRF analysis was performed after 90 daysthe IDH4 cells regained TRF length in a dose dependent manner with 30 μMand 100 μM being approximately the same (FIG. 15). This suggests thatthe presence of excess single-stranded TTAGGG DNA in the cell wasprobably influencing the feedback regulation of telomerase and actuallyincreasing telomerase activity and extending telomere length. Thecontrol and 30 μM GTO were passaged without oligonucleotide addition foran additional 90 days (approximately 35-40 PDL). As is illustrated inFIG. 16, the TRFs slowly shorten.

These data and those in Example 2, indicate that cell lines differ intheir response to GTO oligonucleotide. Thus, prior to use of such anoligonucleotide in therapeutic compositions it is important to ensurethat the target cells respond as desired. Should the effect seen aboveoccur, then the oligonucleotide should be chosen to change the responseto that shown in Example 2. This can be done by choosing anoligonucleotide which binds to telomerase at a different site from thatbound by GTO. Applicant believes that the effect observed above iscaused by binding of GTO to required proteins, allowing telomerase to beactive to expand the telomeres. Thus, by choosing an oligonucleotidewhich does not bind such proteins the desired effect of reducingtelomerase activity can be achieved.

Example 13

Small Molecule Inhibition of Telomerase

The following is an example of a method for screening for activity ofsmall molecules as inhibitors of telomerase. Similar examples will beevident to those in the art. Compounds that can be screened includethose which are not thought to be cytotoxic because they do not causeimmediate cell death. Rather, such compounds act only after severalgenerations of inhibition of telomerase activity. Thus, previous drugstested by standard means should now be retested to determine theirutility as claimed herein. Drugs which inhibit telomerase activity, orin some cases activate it in vivo (e.g. at the level of transcription)are useful in treatment of disease are discussed herein.

We analyzed the effects of various nucleoside analogs, which arechain-terminating inhibitors of retroviral reverse transcriptases, onTetrahymena thermophila telomerase activity in vitro, and on telomerelength and maintenance, cell division and conjugation of Tetrahymenacells in vivo. In vitro assays of telomerase activity showed thatarabinofuranyl-guanosine triphosphate (Ara-GTP) and ddGTP were both veryefficient inhibitors of incorporation of labeled nucleotides intotelomeric DNA repeats, even at low inhibitor concentrations, whileazidothymidine triphosphate (AZT-TP), dideoxyinosine triphosphate(ddITP) or ddTTP were less efficient inhibitors of incorporation. All ofthese nucleoside triphosphate analogs, however, produced analog-specificalterations of the normal banding patterns seen upon gel electrophoresisof the synthesis products of telomerase, suggesting that the competitiveand/or chain terminating action differed at different positions alongthe RNA template.

The effects of these analogs in nucleoside form on Tetrahymena cellgrowth, conjugation, and telomere length were tested. Although celldivision rates and viability were unaffected after several weeks inculture with Ara-G, telomeres were consistently and rapidly shortened incultures containing AZT or Ara-G, and growth rates and viability of afraction of cells were decreased in AZT. In short-term experiments withcultures containing ddG, ddI, or 3′ deoxy-2′,3′-didehydrothymidine(d4T), d4T also showed shortened telomeres. ddG or ddI had no effect ontelomere length. AZT, Ara-G, Acycloguanosine (Acyclo-G), ddG and ddIwere added to conjugating cells, but none showed any irreversibledisruption of conjugation or macronuclear development, as shown byquantitation of the efficiency of formation of progeny cells. PCRanalysis of DNA from cells mated in AZT did show a decrease in theformation of 11 Kb rDNA, a marker for telomere addition duringMacronuclear developement.

The following materials and methods were used to obtain these results:

Tetrahymena thermophila strains SB210(VI) and PB9R(II), where numbers inparentheses indicate mating type, were maintained as stocks at roomtemperature in 1% PPYS (1% proteose peptone (Difco), 0.1% yeast extract(Difco) and 0.0015% Sequestrine (Ciba-Geigy)). Stocks were passagedevery three to four weeks.

For analysis of macronuclear DNA from cultures containing the nucleosideanalog AZT (Sigma), or controls lacking analog, at various timepointsduring vegetative divisions, cells from stationary stock cultures wereinoculated into 25 ml thymine-deficient Iso-sensitest broth (‘Isobroth’,Oxoid USA) in 250 ml flasks. Cultures were incubated at 30° C. withshaking (100 rpm) for 48 hours. Cells were counted and plated at 1000cells/1.5 ml in 24-well plates (Falcon) and grown at 30° C., withoutshaking, for 48 hours. 5 μl of these log phase cells were used toinoculate 1 ml cultures (Isobroth) containing varied concentrations ofnucleoside analog. Thereafter, every 2-4 days cells were transferred,either 5 μl per well, or 1-3 μl using a multi-pronged replicator intofresh 1 ml broth containing AZT. Remaining cells were pelleted andstored at −80° C. until processed for DNA analysis.

For analysis of macronuclear DNA from vegetative cultures containing thenucleoside analogs Ara-G (Calbiochem), ddG (Calbiochem), or ddI(Calbiochem), or controls lacking analog, stock cultures were grownovernight in 2% PPYS as described. Cells were counted and plated at 100cells/2 ml in 2t PPYS containing varied amounts of analog, 1% DMSO(Fisher) (as a control for ddG and Ara-G), or 2% PPYS alone. Cells werereplica plated into fresh medium every 2-6 days, and remaining cellswere pelleted and stored at −80° C. until processed for DNA analysis.

For analysis of macronuclear DNA from vegetative cultures containing d4T(Sigma) or control lacking the analog, stock cultures (SB210 VI) weregrown overnight in Isobroth as described. Cells were then counted andduplicate cultures inoculated at 500 cells/5 ml Isobroth in 50 mlconical tubes, and grown at 30° C., shaking 80 rpm. 500-2000 cells weretransfered to fresh broth every 2-4 days, and the remainder pelleted andstored at −80° C. until processed for DNA analysis.

For analysis of rDNA from cells conjugated in the presence of nucleosideanalogs, 50 ml overnight cultures (2% PPYS) were starved by pelletingcells and resuspending in an equal volume of Dryl's solution beforereturning to 30° C. shaking (100 rpm) incubator for 18 hours. (1× Dryl'ssolution=0.5 g Na citrate, 0.16 g NaH₂PO₄H₂O, 0.14 g Na₂HPO₄ per liter,plus 15 ml of 9.98 g CaCl₂2H₂O/500 ml). Cells were then counted andequal numbers mixed before pelleting (6 minutes in an IEC tabletopcentrifuge, ¾ speed), and resuspended in Dryl's to 1.5-2×10⁶/ml. Cellswere plated at an average density of 1.5 cells/well into 6-well plates(Falcon) and allowed to conjugate 6 hours, 30° C. without shaking.Mock-conjugated SB210 cells were treated identically but not mixed withPB9R cells. At 6 hours the cultures were checked for pairing (>90%,except SB210 controls) and either 1 ml Dryl's solution or 2% PPYScontaining the nucleoside analog (Acyclo-G purchased from Sigma) or noadded drug as control were added slowly with gentle swirling. Cultureswere returned to 30° C. for an additional 18 hours before beingharvested for DNA analysis.

For analysis of vegetative growth and macronuclear DNA from single-cellcultures containing the nucleoside analogs AZT or Ara-G, SB210 (VI)cells were grown from stationary stock cultures overnight at 30° C. withshaking (100 rpm) in 50 ml 2% PPYS or Isobroth. Cells were counted andadded to the appropriate medium plus analog (Ara-G to 1 mM or DMSO to 1%as control in 2% PPYS; AZT to 10 μM or 1 mM, or no addition as controlin Isobroth) and plated in 96-well plates (Falcon), 100 μl per well at adensity of 1 cell per well. 5 plates were prepared for each analog orcontrol. Wells were scored for cell growth and plates were replicaplated every 1-2 days (Ara-G and DMSO plates) or every 2-4 days (AZT andIsobroth control plates) to maintain approximate inoculation densitiesof 1-10 cells per well for each passage. Occasionally individual wellswere passaged by hand (1 μl inoculated per well using a pipettor) intoseveral blank wells, to expand the number of live wells per plate assingle-cell cultures were lost over time due to low probability of beingtransferred at each passage. After passaging, cells were pooled,pelleted and stored at −80° C. until processed for DNA analysis.

Total cellular DNA was prepared essentially as described by Larson 50Cell, 477, 1987, except that the Hoechst 33258-CsCl gradientpurification step was omitted.

Restriction digests, agarose gel electrophoresis, transfer of DNA toNytran filters (Schleicher and Schuell), and hybridization with³²P-nick-translated or random-primed probes were carried out usingstandard procedures (Maniatis et.al. 1989). Telomere length was analyzedas described previously for Tetrahymena [Larson 50 Cell, 477, 1987].

For analysis of cycloheximide (CHX) sensitivity of cells conjugated inthe presence of analog, 50 ml cultures of each cell type were grownovernight in 2% PPYS, starved in Dryl's for 18 hours, mated(5×10⁵cells/ml) for 6 hours, then analog was added. Cells were allowedto complete mating in the presence of the analog. Twenty-four hoursafter mixing, cells were diluted in Dryl's solution, counted and platedat 1 cell per well of 96-well plates in 1% PPYS without analog. Cellswere grown for 4 days in a humid chamber at 30° C., without shaking.Cells were then replica plated into 1% PPYS plus 15 gg/ml cycloheximide,allowed to grow for four days before scoring, and percent ofCHX-resistant wells was calculated. Because generation of progenyexpressing the cycloheximide marker requires successful production of anew macronucleus, cells whose macronuclear development was disrupted bythe analog are killed in CHX.

For PCR analysis of the 11 kb form of the rDNA from cultures conjugatedin the presence of analog, 1.25 μM each of the telomeric primer (C₄A₂)₄and a 25-mer rDNA primer (5′ GTGGCTTCACACAAAATCTAAGCGC 3′) located 1371nucleotides from the 5′ end of the rDNA were used in a “hot start”reaction containing 1 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM each dNTP, 1× PCR reaction buffer(Perkin Elmer Cetus), and 0.5 μl Amplitaq polymerase (Perkin ElmerCetus). Sample DNA and polymerase were kept separate by the use ofAmpliwax PCR Gem 100 wax beads (Perkin Elmer Cetus), followingmanufacturer's instructions. The samples were heated to 95° C. for 1minute, and then cycled 40 rounds in a Perkin-Elmer thermocycler asfollows: 1 minute at 94° C., 30 seconds at 58° C., 3 minutes at 68° C.Identical reactions were done using 3′ micronuclear rDNA primers, 9610nucleotides from the 5′end, and (5′CAATAATGTATTAAAAATATGCTACTTATGCATTATC 3′), 10300 nucleotides from the 5′end.

Synthetic oligomers were prepared as described Greider 43 Cell, 405,1985. Extracts were prepared as described by Blackburn et.al., 31 Genome553, 1989.

A standard assay contained 50% by volume of heparin-agarose purifiedtelomerase, 25 μM TTP, 1.25 μM ³²P-labeled dGTP (400 Ci/mmol, Amersham),1 μM oligo (either (T₂G₄)₄ or (T₂G₄)₂ mixed with water and heated at 90°C. for two minutes and cooled at 30° C. for 10 minutes), and 0.1 μlRNasin (40 U/ml, Promega) in a no-salt buffer. AZT-triphosphate wasobtained from Burroughs Wellcome, N.C. Ara-G-triphosphate was purchasedfrom Calbiochem and ddNTPs from Sigma. Reaction mixes were kept on iceuntil ready for use, and then mixed into tubes containing analog forincubation at 30° C. Reaction times were thirty minutes. Reaction ratesunder these conditions were determined previously to be linear over timefor thirty minutes. Identical reactions were run without primers ascontrols. The reactions were then processed essentially as described byGreider and Blackburn 337 Nature, 331, 1989. For quantitative assays,aliquots of the reaction mixture were spotted in triplicate onto DE81paper and washed as described Greider 43 Cell, 405, 1985. Incorporationof ³²″ P label from either ³²P-TTP or ³²P-dGTP was measured to monitorthe reaction rate. For visualization of the elongation reactionproducts, samples were heated to 95° C. for 2 minutes and cooled on icebefore loading onto a 12% polyacrylamide/8 M urea gel.

The model for the mechanism of the telomerase ribonucleoprotein enzymefrom Tetrahymena is shown in FIG. 18A. The enzyme synthesizes TTGGGGrepeats onto the 3′ end of a suitable DNA primer by copying a templatesequence in the RNA moiety of the enzyme. For ease of reference indiscussing the results, the residues in the template region are numbered1 to 9 (5′ to 3′ along the RNA). The standard telomerase assay used inthis example consists of incorporation of dGTP and TTP substrates, onetriphosphate ³²P-labeled, into synthesized DNA in the reaction shown inFIG. 18A. For the experiments discussed in this example we used as theDNA primer either 1 μM (T₂G₄)₄ or (T₂G₄)2₁, under conditions in whichthe overall rate of incorporation of label was determined previously tobe linear over time. Incorporation of ³²P label from either ³²P-TTP or³²P-dGTP was measured to monitor the reaction rate, and thedistributions of elongation products were analyzed by denaturingpolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

The effect of adding increasing amounts of AZT-triphosphate (AZT-TP) tothe standard assay for telomerase activity is shown in FIG. 19A. Aseries of control reactions using unlabeled TTP added at the sameconcentrations as the AZT-TP was run in parallel (FIG. 19A). Theunlabeled TTP inhibits incorporation of the ³²P-labeled TTP by simplecompetition. Quantitation of label incorporated into product in thisexperiment enabled us to determine the K_(m) for TTP to be ˜5 μM.Compared with addition of unlabeled TTP competitor, AZT-TP had only amodest quantitative effect on the incorporation of ³²P-labeled TTP (FIG.19A). Since AZT incorporation leads to chain termination, this resultindicates that AZT-triphosphate competes less efficiently for telomerasethan TTP. Similar results were obtained when incorporation of ³²P-dGTPwas monitored (FIG. 19B), with 50% inhibition occurring at ˜80 μMAZT-TP.

In similar experiments in which increasing concentrations ofarabinofuranyl-guanosine triphosphate (Ara-GTP) were added to thereaction, significant reduction of overall incorporation occurred evenat low concentrations of the analog (FIG. 19C). From parallelexperiments in which unlabeled dGTPwas added as competitor (FIG. 19C),the K_(m) for dGTP under these reaction conditions was found to be 1-2μM. 50% inhibition occurred with 0.7 μM Ara-GTP; thus Ara-GTPpotentially competes as well as unlabeled dGTP for ³²P-dGTP. However, asincorporation of Ara-G causes chain termination, each Ara-G incorporatedis expected to have a greater impact on total incorporation thancompetition with unlabeled dGTP.

We also tested the effects of dideoxynucleoside triphosphates (ddNTPs)on the telomerase reaction. As shown previously for telomerase [Greider43 Cell, 405, 19853, and as is the case for many other reversetrancriptases, ddNTPs are recognized by the enzyme and incorporated,causing chain termination with a subsequent shift in banding patternsand reduction of the average product length. Consistent with previousqualitative analyses of Tetrahymena and human telomerases [Greider 43Cell, 405, 1985; Morin 59 Cell, 521, 1989], ddGTP and ddTTP eachinhibited the incorporation of labeled ³²P-NTP into elongation products(FIGS. 19D and E). ddGTP was a much more efficient inhibitor than ddTTP:under these reaction conditions 50% inhibition occurred at <0.1 and 5 μMddGTP and ddTTP respectively. As observed previously for Tetrahymenatelomerase (Greider 43 Cell, 405, 1985], no significant effects wereseen with either ddCTP or ddATP. In addition, ddITP inhibited telomerase(FIG. 19E), although less efficiently than ddGTP, with 50% inhibitionoccurring at 3 μM ddITP.

The size distribution of labeled products was then analyzed bydenaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Consistent with theexpectation for a chain-terminator, the proportion of longer telomeraseproducts was decreased in the presence of AZT compared with cold TTPcompetitor controls (FIG. 20A; compare lanes 1 and 2 with lanes 3 to 5),and in the presence of Ara-G (FIG. 20A; lanes 7 and 8). Average productlength also decreased in the presence of Ara-GTP, ddGTP and ddITP (FIGS.20A and B). In addition, each nucleoside triphosphate analog produceddistinctive and characteristic patterns of chain termination, as shownby analysis of the shifts in the banding patterns of the elongationproducts. With AZT-triphosphate, we saw increased relative intensitiesof the bands corresponding to the incorporation of T residues (copyingthe A residues at positions 2 and 3 on the template RNA (see FIG. 18A)).This change in banding pattern is consistent with simple chaintermination, which is predicted to increase the intensity of bandscorresponding to the position of both incorporated T residues. Similareffects were seen with ddTTP. We interpret this to mean thatAZT-triphosphate was recognized by the enzyme and incorporated into thecorrect positions in the growing telomeric sequence, causing chaintermination. However it cannot be excluded that the increase in relativeintensity of the band corresponding to position 3 on the template, whichprecedes addition of the second T, is also attributable to pausingcaused by competition with TTP and a slower reaction rate withAZT-triphosphate at position 2.

The results with Ara-GTP were also consistent with incorporation ofAra-G and consequent chain termination (FIG. 20A, lanes 7 and 8).Although there are four positions at which a G residue can beincorporated and therefore at which chain termination could occur, thestrongest increase was in the band corresponding to the G residuespecified by position 4, in the middle of the telomerase RNA template(see FIG. 18A). With ddGTP, chain termination appeared to occur mostefficiently at positions 6 and 5 (FIG. 20B, compare lane 1 with lanes 4to 6), and with ddITP, at position 5 (lanes 7 to 9).

FIG. 18B summarizes schematically the effects of the varioustriphosphate analogs on polymerization at each of the six positionsalong the template. There was no correlation between the efficiency of anucleoside analog as an inhibitor and the position of its maximal chaintermination on the template. For example, the potent inhibitors ddG-andAra-G-triphosphates cause maximal chain termination at differentpositions on the telomerase RNA template (5 and 6 for ddG, and 4 forAra-G).

In addition to nucleoside triphosphate analogs expected to act as chainterminators, we also tested rifampin, an inhibitor of bacterial RNApolymerase, and streptomycin sulfate. Streptomycin sulfate is known toinhibit the activity of group I self-splicing introns at highconcentrations [von Ahsen 19 Nucl. Acids Res., 2261, 1991], and has aguanidino group that might be recognized by telomerase as part of theenzyme's specificity for G-rich DNA primers (Greider 51 Cell, 887,1987). Adding rifampin at concentrations up to 100 μg/ml did not affectthe quantitative incorporation of label or change the banding pattern ofthe elongation products. Streptomycin sulfate at 40 mM dramaticallyreduced the amount (FIG. 19F) and average length of elongation products,with little decrease in activity being seen in a 40 mM sodium sulfatecontrol. However, unlike the nucleoside triphosphate analogs, inhibitionby streptomycin did not appear to affect incorporation at specificpositions in the repeat. The inhibition by streptomycin may be usefulexperimentally as a criterion for telomerase activity in vitro. However,the significance of the inhibition by streptomycin is unclear, as it isdifficult to rule out that its effect is the result of nonspecificbinding to either the RNA moiety of telomerase or the DNA primer.

Because the triphosphate forms of the analogs AZT, Ara-G, ddT, ddG andddI each inhibited (with varying efficiencies) telomerase in vitro, wetested whether supplying each of these nucleoside analogs in the cellgrowth medium caused in vivo changes in telomere length or senescence.Additionally, Acyclo-G and d4T were tested on conjugating and vegetativecells, respectively.

Previous work with Tetrahymena showed that at least one alteration ofthe telomerase RNA causes telomere shortening and cellular senescence[Yu 344 Nature 126, 1990]. To test whether such a phenotype could beproduced by inhibitors of telomerase in Tetrahymena, duplicate log-phasecultures were grown for prolonged periods in the presence of varyingconcentrations of analogs. The growth and cell morphology of thesecultures were monitored, and DNA was isolated at different times fortelomere length analysis. AZT at 5 or 10 mM added to Isobroth mediumstrongly inhibited cell growth and killed cells within a day, and thusat these concentrations acted in a manner suggestive of immediatetoxicity to cells, rather than of senescence. AZT added to Isobrothmedium at lower concentrations (up to 1 mM) did not result in senescenceof cultures maintained by subculture of ˜10³ cells per transfer, over a50-day period of continuous growth and subculturing of these cellcultures. From growth rate measurements it was calculated that the cellswent through 150 to 250 cell generations in the course of this 50 dayperiod. In similar mass transfer experiments no effects on cell doublingrate, morphology or long term viability were obtained with cells grownin 2% PPYS plus up to 2 mM Ara-G, the highest concentration tested thatdid not cause immediate toxicity.

Telomere lengths in cells grown in the presence of the different analogswere monitored by Southern blot analysis of DNA samples extracted at aseries of time points during the subculturings. The telomeres of cellsgrown vegetatively in 1 and 5 mM AZT in 2% PPYS medium were reproduciblyshortened by up to an average of 170 base pairs compared with thecontrol cultures grown in 2% PPYS in the absence of the drug (FIGS. 21Aand B). This shortening of telomeres occured in aconcentration-dependent manner (FIG. 21B), with at least 50% of themaximal shortening effect occurring by 10 μM AZT, the lowestconcentration tested. For each AZT concentration tested, the fulldecrease was seen within 3 days of culturing in the presence of the drug(15 to 30 cell divisions), but after this initial length adjustment, ateach drug concentration telomeres thereafter showed no statisticallysignificant shortening over time, and mean telomere length consistentlyremained static for at least 28 days of mass transfer subculturing.

Similar degrees and timing of telomere shortening were produced with 1or 2 mM Ara-G added to 2% PPYS culture medium (FIG. 21C). d4T added toIsobroth culture medium in concentrations ranging from 10 μM to 1 mMproduced shortened telomeres at 100 μM and 1 mM, again in aconcentration dependent manner, after 5 days (16 generations) inculture. In contrast, up to 1 mM ddG or ddI produced no changes intelomere length compared with control cultures, over a period of 5 daysof subculturing (15-20 cell generations) in 2% PPYS medium.

Because we had found previously that telomerase is strongly inhibited invitro by at least some of the analogs tested, and telomere length isaffected in vivo within an estimated 15 to 30 cell generations by theseanalogs, it was possible that telomere addition was in fact beingdisrupted in vivo, but that our failure to find any evidence ofprogressive telomere shortening or senescence was attributable to asubset of the cell population that escapes an inhibitory effect of theanalog on telomerase. We have shown previously that impairing telomerasein vivo by mutating the telomerase RNA produced senescence in mostcells, but only ˜10² single cell subclones were analyzed in theseexperiments, [Yu 344 Nature 126, 1990]. Under our mass transfersubculturing regime, in which about 10³ cells were transferred perpassage, if a fraction as small as ˜1% of the cells escaped senescence,and if their growth advantage was sufficiently high compared with cellslosing telomeres, they could become the predominant population in anycell passage and we would not have detected any phenotype.

To test whether we had missed such a subpopulation of cells, we carriedout the same experiments on vegetatively dividing Tetrahymena cells inthe presence and absence of drug, but in these experiments thesubculturing was carried out by plating cells at an average of 1 to 10cells per well in microtiter plate wells in the presence of 10 μM and 1mM AZT, and 10 μM and 1 mM Ara-G. For each drug, cells were plated outin this manner for 30 consecutive days (90 to 150 cell generations) and16 consecutive days (50 to 80 cell generations) respectively for the 10μM and 1 mM drug concentrations. DNA was isolated at intervals fromcombined samplings of the wells for analysis of telomere length.

Compared with control medium lacking the nucleoside analog, no changesin the plating efficiency were observed over the course of theexperiment for cells grown in 10 μM AZT and 10 μM or 1 mM Ara-G.However, in the presence of 1 mM AZT, monitoring growth rates of c ellsmaintained in this way by single cell transfers allowed us to identifytwo general growth classes, which we designated as slow (0 to 1 celldoubling per day) and fast (2 to 4 cell doubling per day). The growthrate of fast cells was similar to that of the controls grown in Isobrothcontaining no AZT. Over time, the proportion of wells with slow cellsdecreased, as would be expected if they simply had a lower probabilityof being transferred, since they were present in lower cell densitiesthan fast cells, which grew to higher cell densities and for which thetiming of the plating protocols had been worked out. However, monitoringthe cells remaining in wells after transfers had been made from themshowed that the slow cells lost viability over time. In addition,throughout the course of the transfers, slow cells appeared fromformerly fast cell wells. We pooled cells from the slow growing wells(pooling of several microfiter wells was necessary to obtain sufficientDNA for Southern analysis) and compared there telomere lengthdistribution with that of pooled fast cells. The mean length and sizedistribution of telomeric DNA from pooled fast cells wereindistinguishable from those of control cells grown without AZT. Incontrast, the pooled slow cell DNA showed a slight decrease in meantelomere length and heterogeneity (FIG. 21D). Control cells grown inIsobroth medium had telomeres that were an average of 165 bp shorterthan cells grown in 1% PPYS medium. We believe that because thetelomeric G₄T₂repeat tracts in cells grown in Isobroth medium arealready markedly shorter than those of cells grown in the richer PPYSmedium, the additional amount of telomere shortening caused by growth in1 mM AZT is sufficient to reduce continually and stochastically afraction of the telomeres below a critical lower threshold required forfunction, thus causing the decreased viability of a subpopulation of thecells.

We examined the effects of AZT, Ara-G, Acyclo-G, ddI and ddG on progenyformation by cells that have undergone conjugation. This processinvolves de novo formation of new macronuclear telomeres in the progenycells. Macronuclear development in ciliated protozoans such asTetrahymena involves developmentally programmed, site-specificfragmentation of germline chromosomes into linear subchromosomes, whoseends are healed by de novo addition of telomeres. We showed previouslythat telomerase not only elongates pre-existing telomeres in vivo duringvegetative cell divisions [Yu 344 Nature, 126, 1990], but also functionsto directly add telomeric DNA onto non-telomeric sequences during thisdevelopmentally-controlled chromosome healing. Because of the immediaterequirement for telomere addition to fragmented DNA, it is possible thatthe latter process might be more sensitive to telomerase inhibition thantelomere maintenance during vegetative growth. To test whethernucleoside analogs cause inhibition of macronuclear development due to adisruption of telomere formation, we mated two strains of Tetrahymenawhich are sensitive to cycloheximide, but whose progeny after mating areresistant to cycloheximide. Synchronized mated cells were treated withAZT at concentrations ranging from 10 μM to 5 mM for a period beginningjust prior to when macronuclear development begins and continuing duringmacronuclear development (the period 6-24 hours after mating wasinitiated). At this point cells were diluted out in microtiter platewells in fresh medium lacking the analog, at an average cell density ofone cell per well, and allowed to grow for the minimum period beforeselection for cells that had successfully produced progeny. In attemptsto maximize the effect of AZT, cells were either refed at 6 hrs with 2%PPYS or Isobroth, or starved until 24 hrs (the duration of the AZTtreatment). Such starvation arrests macronuclear development at anintermediate stage. When refed, macronuclear development would then beforced to proceed in the presence of the AZT. Control, unmated parentalcells were also plated and exposed to drug. Similar experiments wereperformed with Ara-G, Acyclo-G, ddI and ddG. The results are shown inTable 4.

The control plates showed 99%-100% cell death in CHX, while the majorityof cells that were mated with or without analog survived. None of thenucleoside analogs had any statistically significant effect on progenyformation. The design of this experiment would prevent takeover of theculture by a minority population that evaded the effects of the drug, asdescribed above. Therefore little or no irreversible disruption ofmacronuclear development due to impaired telomerase activity andtelomere formation occurred in the presence of AZT, Ara-G, Acyclo-G,ddG, or ddI.

Although macronuclear development was not significantly disrupted,analysis of the formation of a marker for telomere addition duringmacronuclear development suggests that AZT reduces the efficiency oftelomere addition.

DNA from cells mated in the presence or absence of analog, and eitherrefed at 6 hours or starved fully for the duration of conjugation wereused in PCR with a telomeric primer and a 5′ rDNA primer. This selectedfor a fragment of the 11 kb rDNA to which telomeres had been added. The11 kb rDNA is either a by-product of the 21 kb rDNA formed duringmacronuclear development or an intermediate of this process. It ispresent only transiently during new macronuclear development and as suchis a good marker for telomere addition in vivo. Knock-down of relativeamounts of the 1400 nucleotide PCR-generated fragment from 11 kb-rDNAwas seen in DNA from cells conjugated in the presence of AZT, but not inthose containing Ara-G, Acyclo-G, H₂O or DMSO controls or inmock-conjugated SB210 cells. To show that the DNA used in the PCRreactions was present and competent for PCR, identical reactions wererun using primers from the 3′-micronuclear copy of the rDNA. In allsamples the expected 810 nucleotide fragment was produced in substantialquantities (FIG. 22), indicating that the decrease in the 1400nucleotide telomere-containing PCR product in samples from cells matedin AZT is due to the presence of analog rather than contaminants in theDNA or reagents. Southern blotting with a 5′-rDNA probe confirmed thatthe telomere-containing PCR product was from the expected rDNA sequence,(FIG. 22B) and no cross-hybridization occurred to the 3′ PCR product. Anoverall decrease in telomere-containing PCR products was seen in allsamples that were re-fed at 6 hours post-mixing, but the decrease wasmore pronounced in samples that had been mated in the presence of AZT.

TABLE 6 Effects of nucleoside analogs on progeny formation. CELLTREATMENT # CHX-R # TOTAL % CHX-R SB210 (NOT MATED)  1 215 0.5 PB9R (NOTMATED)  3 307 1 AZT (mM) 0 139  212 66 0.01 121  169 72 0.1 100  148 681.0 91 166 55 5.0 75 120 63 SB210 (NOT MATED)  0  57 0 AZT (mM) 0 165 214 77 0.01 67  92 73 0.1 128  190 67 1.0 60 125 48 5.0 89 168 53 1%DMSO 84 109 77 ARA-G (mM) 0.01 114  141 81 0.1 134  167 80 1.0 89 161 551% DMSO 51  75 68 ARA-G (mM) 1.0 51  86 59 2.0 40  92 43 SB210 (NOTMATED)  0  9 0 PB9R (NOT MATED)  0 37 0 ddI (mM) 0 63  75 84 0.001 59 71 83 0.01 85  96 89 0.1 83 106 78 1.0 100  110 91 1% DMSO 21  44 48ddG (mM) 0.001 86 102 84 0.1 73  86 85 1.0 51  66 77 ACYCLO-G (mM) 0 36 45 80 0.017 80 107 75 0 78 116 67 0.017 101  146 69

Example 14

G-Reaction for Reducing the Size of the Terminal Restriction Fragment

Human fibroblast DNA digested with restriction enzymes, electrophoresed,and hybridized by Southern blot makes possible the resolution ofterminal restriction fragments (TRFs) which in turn reflect the relativelength of telomeric repeat sequences (See FIG. 26, HinfI digested DNA,labeled “HinfI”; DNA not digested, labeled “0”). This Southern analysisis complicated by the fact that human and many other species have longstretches of subtelomeric repetitive sequences that add to the TRF size.As a means of eliminating the artifactual inclusion of this subtelomericrepeats in a measurement of telomeric repeat length, a modifiedMaxam-Gilbert reaction is employed to hydrolyze the DNA at G residues.In the lane labeled “P only” (underloaded) the DNA is treated withpiperidine in mild conditions which does not in itself decrease the sizeof the DNA. In the lane labeled “P+DMS” the samples are pretreated withDMS. Not the substantial reduction in TRF size compared to the HinfIdigest relecting the deletion of subtelomeric sequences in the C-richstrand containing G residues. All lanes were probed with (TTAGGG)₃. Thisassay is thus useful for analysis of telomere lengths in diagnosticprocedures.

Example 15

Fungal telomeres

The following example illustrates various specific telomeric sequenceswhich can be used to identify specific fungi. Those in the art willrecognize that such sequences can be probed with oligonucleotides tospecifically diagnose the presence of a selected fungus. In addition,specific treatment of fungi can be effected by use of agents which bindto such sequences and reduce the long term viability of the fungal cell.

As described herein telomeric DNA is an attractive target for specificdrug therapy. Telomeres are short single-stranded protrusions which areaccessible to specific drugs. Binding by such drugs will interfere withnormal telomere function and thus fungal cell viability. In similarexperiments (routine to those in the art when conducted as describedherein) inhibitors or facilitators of such telomere replication (ortelomerase activity) can be discovered and used as anticancer,antiparasite and antifungal agents.

The-significantly increased length of fungal telomeres makes them idealtargets for antisense therapy or diagnosis. In addition, this differenttelomere structure indicates a different mechanism of action of thetelomerase, and thus its availability as a target for antifungal agentswhich are inactive on human or other animal cells.

Telomeric DNA sequences have generally been found to be remarkablyconserved in evolution, typically consisting of repeated, very shortsequence units containing clusters of G residues. Recently however thetelomeric DNA of the budding yeast Candida albicans was shown to consistof much longer repeat units. Here we report the identification of sevenadditional new telomeric sequences from budding yeasts. Although withinthe budding yeasts the telomeric sequences show more phylogeneticdiversity in length (8 -25 bp), sequence and composition than has beenseen previously throughout the whole phylogenetic range of othereukaryotes, we show that all the known budding yeast telomeric repeatscontain a strikingly conserved 6 bp motif of T and G residues resemblingmore typical telomeric sequences. We propose that G clusters intelomeres are conserved because of constraints imposed by their mode ofsynthesis, rather than by a fundamental requirement for a specificcommon structural property of telomeric DNA.

The DNA sequences of telomeres, the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, havebeen found previously to be conserved even between very diverseeukaryotes, typically consisting of tandem arrays of 5-8 bp repeatingunits characterized by clusters of G residues, producing a marked strandcomposition bias. However, the telomeric repeats of the opportunisticpathogen Candida albicans were shown to consist of homogeneous repeatsof a 23 bp sequence that lacks any noticeable strand composition bias.

To determine the relationship of the apparently exceptional, complextelomeric repeat sequence of Candida albicans to the more usual, simpletelomeric sequences, genomic DNA from budding yeast species related toboth C. albicans and S. cerevisiae were analyzed by Southern blotting,using cloned C. albicans telomeric repeats as the hybridization probe.Under low-stringency hybridization conditions we detected multiplecross-hybridizing bands in several species FIG. 28. In some cases, thecross-hybridizing bands clearly were broad, a characteristic feature oftelomeric restriction fragments caused by different numbers of telomericrepeats in individual telomeres among a population of cells.

Telomere-enriched libraries were constructed from genomic DNA from sevenbudding yeast species and strains. Telomeric clones were identified bytheir ability to hybridize to known yeast telomeric repeats (either the23 bp C. albicans repeat or the TG₁₋₃ repeat of S. cerevisiae), or byscreening for end-linked repetitive DNA sequences without the use of aspecific probe. Sequencing putative telomere fragment inserts from sevenspecies identified clones that contained tandem repeats with unitlengths of 8-25 bp. With a single exception, the repeats showed nosequence variations within a species. In every case the repeat array waspresent at the very end of the insert, directly abutting vectorsequences, as would be expected for cloned telomeres. Therepeat-containing clone from each species hybridized back to the samepattern of restriction fragments observed originally with the C.albicans or the S. cerevisiae probe used for library screening. Most ofthe bands were preferentially sensitive to Bal31 nuclease (FIG. 29)indicating that the bulk of the repeat sequences are present at the endsof chromosomes. The lengths of the tracts of repeats cloned from thedifferent yeast species were typically between 250-600 bp, althoughthose from the two C. tropicalis strains were only 130-175 bp. That thisspecies has particularly short telomeres is also supported by their veryrapid loss during Bal31 digestion and by the relatively weakhybridization, even with species-specific telomere probes.

FIG. 30 shows an alignment of these newly discovered telomeric repeatunit sequences together with those of C. albicans and S. cerevisiae. Twostriking features are apparent: the much greater variety of the buddingyeast telomeres, with respect to repeat unit lengths and sequencecomplexities, compared to other eukaryotes, and a conserved six-basecluster of T and G residues that most resembles typical telomericsequences.

The sequence relationships among the telomeric repeats are generallyconsistent with the phylogenetic relationships of these budding yeasts.The telomeric repeats of the two C. tropicalis strains differ by only asingle base polymorphism. The 25 bp telomeric repeats of the closelyrelated K. lactis and C. pseudotropicalis differ at only one position.The telomeric repeat sequences from C. albicans, C. maltosa, C.pseudotropicalis, C. tropicalis and K. lactis are 23-25 bp in length,with differences largely or entirely confined to the central part of therepeat. The 16 bp repeat unit from C. glabrata, the species in thisstudy that may be most closely related to S. cerevisiae, is very G-rich,which probably contributes to its cross-hybridization to theheterogeneous and smaller S. cerevisiae telomeric repeats. All thebudding yeast sequences, including the irregular S. cerevisiae repeats,have a perfect or ⅚ match to a 6 bp T/G sequence (boxed) X

In the cloned telomere from C. tropicalis strain B-4414, we found twotelomeric repeat sequences that differed at the second base position ofthe repeat, as shown in FIG. 30 repeat units in the B-4414 telomere werehomogeneous (and will be termed the “AC repeat”), but the remainingrepeat (henceforth termed the “AA repeat”) was identical to thehomogeneous telomeric repeats cloned from strain C. tropicalis B-4443.

To determine the distribution of these variant repeats among thetelomeres and strains of C. tropicalis, genomic DNA from several C.tropicalis strains including B-4414 and B-4443, and a control C.albicans strain were probed with oligonucleotide probes specific foreither the AA or the AC repeat (FIG. 31 left panel). Only strains B-4414and 1739-82, and to some extent the C. albicans telomeres, hybridizedwith the AC repeat-specific oligonucleotide probe (FIG. 31 left panel).However, genomic DNA from all of the C. tropicalis strains tested,including B-4443, but not from C. albicans, hybridized well with theoligonucleotide specific for “AA” repeats (FIG. 31 right panel). Theseresults clearly indicate that both B-4414 and 1739-82 contain at leasttwo forms of telomeric repeats, which are most likely variablyinterspersed in different telomeres, as signal rations with the twoprobes differed between individual telomeric fragments (FIGS. 31A and B,lanes 1 and 2).

Example 16

Effects of Telomerase Inhibitors on Human Tumor Cell Growth

Agents that were shown to inhibit telomerase from Tetrahymena e.g., AZT,ddG, and ara-G were tested to determine their effect on human telomeraseactivity, telomere repeat length, and cell growth immortality. Of thecompounds tested ddG and ara-G were effective inhibitors of humantelomerase obtained from the tumor cell line 296. The data for ddG isshown in FIG. 27. The effect of the agents on telomerase activity inintact cells was then studied utilizing the lymphoma cell line JY 616which were maintained in RPMI 1640 with 0.25M Hepes, 10% FCS, andpenicillin/streptomycin (Gibco). The cells were cultured in 6-wellplates (Falcon) with 5.0 ML of medium per well in duplicate. Cells werepassaged every 7-10 days which corresponded to 5-7 mean populationdoublings (MPD), and seeded at 3×10⁴ cells per well into fresh mediumcontaining analog or control. Cell viability was monitored prior toharvest utilizing trypan blue stain (Gibco) during counting with ahemocytometer. The average ratio of stained: unstained cells(dead:alive) was >90%. The intactness of the DNA was measured on aparallel gel by observing its mobility in a gel prior to digestion by arestriction enzyme.

As seen in FIG. 23, all JY cells grew in an immortal fashion in thepresence of a low concentration of the potential telomerase inhibitors.At high concentrations (FIG. 24), the cells ceased proliferating in thepresence of 50μM AZT and displayed a slowed growth in the presence of20μM ara-G. In support of the belief that this inhibition of cell growthin the presence of 50 μM AZT, is due to telomerase inhibition, is theobservation that the cells grew at a normal rate until week 3 and thenceased dividing. This is the effect one would expect if the inhibitionof cell growth was via telomerase inhibition (i.e., the cells requiremultiple rounds of cell division to lose their telomeric repeats). Alsoin support of the belief that AZT inhibited the growth of the cells viathe inhibition of telomerase is the finding shown in FIG. 25 wherecompared to week 1, and week 3 where the cells stopped dividing, the AZTtreated cells had a marked decrease in mean telomere length compared tothe control medium “R” at the same time.

In addition, 10 μM ddG was shown to cause a decrease in telomere lengthcompared to the control (in this case a DMSO control). In FIG. 32 it canbe seen that JY cells studied in a manner similar to that describedabove, and treated with ddG, showed a markedly shorter telomere repeatlength after 9 and 10 weeks compared to the DMSO control. It should benoted that while JY cells are immortal, when cultured under theconditions described, they lose some telomeric repeats over 10 weeks.The addition of ddG markedly accelerated this loss.

Example 17

Assay for Telomerase Inhibitors Utilizing Human Telomerase

The following is a micro assay for the rapid MC screening of potentialinhibitors of human telomerase. The reaction consists of the followingcomponents (given as a final concentration in 10 μl reaction volume): 1×Human Telomerase Buffer (HTB; 50 mM Tris.Cl pH 7.5, 1 mM Spermidine, 5mM β-mercaptoethanol (BME), 5S 1 mM MgCl₂, 50 mM potassium acetate(K-OAc), 2 mM DATP, dTTP, 0.625 μM [³²P]-dGTP (800 Ci/mmol, 10 mCi/mlstock), 1 μM (TTAGGG)₃, 1 μl test compound, 5 μl of 1:5 diluted 293S-100 extract, and diethylpyrocarbonate(depc)-treated H₂O to 10 μl.

The HTB, dATP, dTTP, 293 S-100 diluted extract, oligo and depc H₂O arecombined, and aliquots are distributed to individual wells of a 96-wellmicro-titer plate. Different concentrations of the test compound areadded to the wells and the plate is preincubated at 30° C. for 20minutes to allow for inhibition to occur. The [³²P]-dGTP is then addedto the wells, and the reactions are incubated at 30° C. for a further30-60 minutes. At the end of this time, duplicate aliquots are spottedonto DE81 filter paper and allowed to dry. The filter paper is thenwashed extensively in 0.5M Na₂HPO₄ to wash away the unincorporatedlabel, and briefly rinsed in water before drying. The filter is thenexposed to a phosphorimaging screen for 30-60 minutes, and the samplesare quantitated.

By comparing the sample signal to the RNase pretreated controls and theno extract controls, a percent decrease in telomerase-generated signalcan be calculated. Any sample causing a change in the amount ofradioactivity detected is electrophoresed on a DNA sequencing gel toconfirm inhibition and to observe the effect of the agent on telomeraseprocessivity. This will include determining if the inhibitory effect isa direct effect on the telomerase enzyme, or on one of the othercomponents in the reaction, by performing titrations of these componentsand observing the percent inhibition. When a direct in vitro effect ontelomerase is detected, the inhibitor is then be tested on culturedcells and in animal models such as tumor-bearing nude mice. As seen inFIG. 27, ddG was shown to inhibit human telomerase in a dose-dependentmanner. Similar results were obtained with ara-G.

Compositions

Compositions or products according to the invention may conveniently beprovided in the form of solutions suitable for parenteral or nasal ororal administration. In many cases, it will be convenient to provide anagent in a single solution for administration.

If the agents are amphoteric they may be utilized as free bases, as acidaddition salts or as metal salts. The salts must, of course, bepharmaceutically acceptable, and these will include metal salts,particularly alkali and alkaline earth metal salts, e.g., potassium orsodium salts. A wide variety of pharmaceutically acceptable acidaddition salts are available. These include those prepared from bothorganic and inorganic acids, preferably mineral acids. Typical acidswhich may be mentioned by way of example include citric, succinic,lactic, hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids. Such products are readilyprepared by procedures well known to those skilled in the art.

The agents (and inhibitors) of the invention will normally be providedas parenteral compositions for injection or infusion. They can, forexample, be suspended in an inert oil, suitably a vegetable oil such assesame, peanut, or olive oil. Alternatively, they can be suspended in anaqueous isotonic buffer solution at a pH of about 5.6 to 7.4. Usefulbuffers include sodium citrate-citric acid and sodiumphosphate-phosphoric acid.

The desired isotonicity may be accomplished using sodium chloride orother pharmaceutically acceptable agents such as dextrose, boric acid,sodium tartrate, propylene glycol or other inorganic or organic solutes.Sodium chloride is preferred particularly for buffers containing sodiumions.

If desired, solutions of the above compositions may be thickened with athickening agent such as methyl cellulose. They may be prepared inemulsified form, either water in oil or oil in water. Any of a widevariety of pharmaceutically acceptable emulsifying agents may beemployed including, for example acacia powder, or an alkali polyetheralcohol sulfate or sulfonate such as a Triton.

The therapeutically useful compositions of the invention are prepared bymixing the ingredients following generally accepted procedures. Forexample, the selected components may be simply mixed in a blender orother standard device to produce a concentrated mixture which may thenbe adjusted to the final concentration and viscosity by the addition ofwater or thickening agent and possibly a buffer to control pH or anadditional solute to control tonicity.

For use by the physician, the compositions will be provided in dosageunit form containing an amount of agent which will be effective in oneor multiple doses to perform a desired function. As will be recognizedby those in the field, an effective amount of therapeutic agent willvary with many factors including the age and weight of the patient, thepatient's physical condition, the blood sugar level to be obtained, andother factors.

Administration

Selected agents, e.g., oligonucleotide or ribozymes can be administeredprophylactically, or to patients suffering from a target disease, e.g.,by exogenous delivery of the agent to an infected tissue by means of anappropriate delivery vehicle, e.g., a liposome, a controlled releasevehicle, by use of iontophoresis, electroporation or ion pairedmolecules, or covalently attached adducts, and other pharmacologicallyapproved methods of delivery. Routes of administration includeintramuscular, aerosol, oral (tablet or pill form), topical, systemic,ocular, intraperitoneal and/or intrathecal. Expression vectors forimmunization with ribozymes and/or delivery of oligonucleotides are alsosuitable.

The specific delivery route of any selected agent will depend on the useof the agent. Generally, a specific delivery program for each agent willfocus on naked agent uptake with regard to intracellular localization,followed by demonstration of efficacy. Alternatively, delivery to thesesame cells in an organ or tissue of an animal can be pursued. Uptakestudies will include uptake assays to evaluate, e.g., cellularoligonucleotide uptake, regardless of the delivery vehicle or strategy.Such assays will also determine the intracellular localization of theagent following uptake, ultimately establishing the requirements formaintenance of steady-state concentrations within the cellularcompartment containing the target sequence (nucleus and/or cytoplasm).Efficacy and cytotoxicity can then be tested. Toxicity will not onlyinclude cell viability but also cell function.

Some methods of delivery, e.g., for oligonucleotides, that may be usedinclude:

a. encapsulation in liposomes,

b. transduction by retroviral vectors,

c. conjugation with cholesterol,

d. localization to nuclear compartment utilizing antigen binding sitefound on most snRNAs,

e. neutralization of charge of oligonucleotides by using nucleotidederivatives, and

f. use of blood stem cells to distribute oligonucleotides throughout thebody.

At least three types of delivery strategies are useful in the presentinvention, including: agent modifications, particle carrier drugdelivery vehicles, and retroviral expression vectors. Unmodified agentsmay be taken up by cells, albeit slowly. To enhance cellular uptake, theagent may be modified essentially at random, in ways which reduces itscharge but maintains specific functional groups. This results in amolecule which is able to diffuse across the cell membrane, thusremoving the permeability barrier.

Modification of agents to reduce charge is just one approach to enhancethe cellular uptake of these larger molecules. The structuralrequirements necessary to maintain agent activity are well understood bythose in the art. These requirements are taken into consideration whendesigning modifications to enhance cellular delivery. The modificationsare also designed to reduce susceptibility to enzymatic degradation.Both of these characteristics should greatly improve the efficacy of theagent.

Chemical modifications of the phosphate backbone of oligonucleotideswill reduce the negative charge allowing free diffusion across themembrane. This principle has been successfully demonstrated forantisense DNA technology. In the body, maintenance of an externalconcentration will be necessary to drive the diffusion of the modifiedoligonucleotides into the cells of the tissue. Administration routeswhich allow the diseased tissue to be exposed to a transient highconcentration of the oligonucleotide, which is slowly dissipated bysystemic adsorption are preferred. Intravenous administration with adrug carrier designed to increase the circulation half-life of theoligonucleotides can be used. The size and composition of the drugcarrier restricts rapid clearance from the blood stream. The carrier,made to accumulate at the site of infection, can protect theoligonucleotides from degradative processes.

Drug delivery vehicles are effective for both systemic and topicaladministration. They can be designed to serve as a slow releasereservoir, or to deliver their contents directly to the target cell. Anadvantage of using direct delivery drug vehicles is that multiplemolecules are delivered per uptake. Such vehicles have been shown toincrease the circulation half-life of drugs which would otherwise berapidly cleared from the blood stream. Some examples of such specializeddrug delivery vehicles which fall into this category are liposomes,hydrogels, cyclodextrins, biodegradable nanocapsules, and bioadhesivemicrospheres.

From this category of delivery systems, liposomes are preferred.Liposomes increase intracellular stability, increase uptake efficiencyand improve biological activity.

Liposomes are hollow spherical vesicles composed of lipids arranged in asimilar fashion as those lipids which make up the cell membrane. Theyhave an internal aqueous space for entrapping water soluble compoundsand range in size from 0.05 to several microns in diameter. Severalstudies have shown that liposomes can deliver agents to cells and thatthe agent remains biologically active.

For example, a liposome delivery vehicle originally designed as aresearch tool, Lipofectin, has been shown to deliver intact mRNAmolecules to cells yielding production of the corresponding protein.

Liposomes offer several advantages: They are non-toxic and biodegradablein composition; they display long circulation half-lives; andrecognition molecules can be readily attached to their surface fortargeting to tissues. Finally, cost effective manufacture ofliposome-based pharmaceuticals, either in a liquid suspension orlyophilized product, has demonstrated the viability of this technologyas an acceptable drug delivery system.

Other controlled release drug delivery systems, such as nanoparticlesand hydrogels may be potential delivery vehicles for an agent. Thesecarriers have been developed for chemotherapeutic agents andprotein-based pharmaceuticals.

Topical administration of agents is advantageous since it allowslocalized concentration at the site of administration with minimalsystemic adsorption. This simplifies the delivery strategy of the agentto the disease site and reduces the extent of toxicologicalcharacterization. Furthermore, the amount of material to be applied isfar less than that required for other administration routes. Effectivedelivery requires the agent to diffuse into the infected cells. Chemicalmodification of the agent to neutralize negative or positive charges maybe all that is required for penetration. However, in the event thatcharge neutralization is insufficient, the modified agent can beco-formulated with permeability enhancers, such as Azone or oleic acid,in a liposome. The liposomes can either represent a slow releasepresentation vehicle in which the modified agent and permeabilityenhancer transfer from the liposome into the targeted cell, or theliposome phospholipids can participate directly with the modified agentand permeability enhancer in facilitating cellular delivery. In somecases, both the agent and permeability enhancer can be formulated into asuppository formulation for slow release.

Agents may also be systemically administered. Systemic absorption refersto the accumulation of drugs in the blood stream followed bydistribution throughout the entire body. Administration routes whichlead to systemic absorption include: intravenous, subcutaneous,intraperitoneal, intranasal, intrathecal and ophthalmic. Each of theseadministration routes expose the agent to an accessible diseased orother tissue. Subcutaneous administration drains into a localized lymphnode which proceeds through the lymphatic network into the circulation.The rate of entry into the circulation has been shown to be a functionof molecular weight or size. The use of a liposome or other drug carrierlocalizes the agent at the lymph node. The agent can be modified todiffuse into the cell, or the liposome can directly participate in thedelivery of either the unmodified or modified agent to the cell.

Most preferred delivery methods include liposomes (10-400 nm),hydrogels, controlled-release polymers, microinjection orelectroporation (for ex vivo treatments) and other pharmaceuticallyapplicable vehicles. The dosage will depend upon the disease indicationand the route of administration but should be between 10-2000 mg/kg ofbody weight/day. The duration of treatment will extend through thecourse of the disease symptoms, usually at least 14-16 days and possiblycontinuously. Multiple daily doses are anticipated for topicalapplications, ocular applications and vaginal applications. The numberof doses will depend upon disease delivery vehicle and efficacy datafrom clinical trials.

Establishment of therapeutic levels of agent within the target cell isdependent upon the rate of uptake and degradation. Decreasing the degreeof degradation will prolong the intracellular half-life of the agent.Thus, chemically modified agents, e.g., oligonucleotides withmodification of the phosphate backbone, or capping of the 5′ and 3′ endsof the oligonucleotides with nucleotide analogues may require differentdosaging.

It is evident from the above results, that by modulating telomeraseactivity and monitoring telomere length and telomerase activity, one mayprovide therapies for proliferative diseases and monitor the presence ofneoplastic cells and/or proliferative capacity of cells, where one isinterested in regeneration of particular cell types. Assays are providedwhich allow for the determination of both telomere length, particularlyas an average of a cellular population, or telomerase activity of acellular population. This information may then be used in diagnosingdiseases, predicting outcomes, and providing for particular therapies.

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification areherein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication orpatent application were specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail byway of illustration and example for purposes of clarity ofunderstanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill inthe art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changesand modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spiritor scope of the appended claims.

CSITU9 1   ATATATGCGCTACATAAATGTATCTAGATGCAATTATCTAGATACATATA51  AGAAAGTATTTGAAGGCCTTCTACAAGGCTTAGTTATTATATTGGTTCAT101 ACAAGTTCTTCTTCAG Total number of bases is: 176 DNA sequencecomposition: 39 A; 17 C; 15 G; 42 T; 0 Other CSITU131   ATCCTTCTCCGCAAACTAACAGGAACAGAAAACCAAACACTGCATGTTCT51  CACATCATTGTGGGAGTTGAACAATGAGAACACATGGACACAGGGAGGGG101 AACATCACACACTCGGGGTGTCAGCCGGGTGGGAGGGTAGAGGAGGAGAA151 ATACCTAAGTTCCAGATGACAGGTTG Total number of bases is: 176 DNAsequence composition: 58 A; 37 C; 50 G; 31 T; 0 Other CSITU221   GATCTATGCTACCTCTAGGGATGGCACCATTCACAAGCACAAAGGAGATG51  TCAGTGATTAAAAACACATGCTCTGGAGTCTGAGAGACTTTGAGACTTGC101 TAGCTTGTGACTCTGCAGAGTTTAAGGTATCTGGACCCCTTTTTCCCTCA151 TGTGCATAATGAAGAGATT Total number of bases is: 169 DNA sequencecomposition: 47 A; 35 C; 39 G; 48 T; 0 Other CSITU241   GATCAACACTGTTAGTTGAGTACCCACATCACAAACGTGATTCTCAGAAT51  GCCTTCCTTCCTGTCTAGTTTCTATAGGTAGATATTTCCTTTTTCAGCAT101 AGGCCTGAAAAGCCGCCTCCAAATGCCCGCCTTCCAGACACTATAAAAAG151 AGGGTTCAAACCTACTCTATGAAAGGGAATGTTCAACACAGA Total number of bases is:192 DNA sequence composition: 58 A; 49 C; 33G; 52 T; 0 Other CSITU331   GATCTGTTTATTATTCTTCCAATATCTCCCCATCTCTTAAAAATTGGTTA51  TTTCTTCGTTCATACATTTTTATCTCCCAAATTANNNNTGAGACTGGTTT101 GAAGAGAGGAAAGCAATGTACACACTTTTATATTCCACCATGTATATCCG 151 GATATCC Totalnumber of bases is: 157 DNA sequence composition: 43 A; 32 C; 19 G; 59T; 4 Other CSITU371   AATCCTCCTACCTTAACCTCCCTTTGTTAGCCTGCCATTACAGGTGTGAG51  CCACCATTGCTCATTCGTCCGTTTATTCATTCAACAAATCAATCGATCTA101 TTACATGTGAGGGACTCTTCAGGTCATGGGAATTC Total number of bases is: 135DNA sequence composition: 32 A; 37 C; 22 G; 44 T; 0 Other CSITU381   GATCACTTGAGCCCAGGAGTTTGAGACCAGCCTGGGTGACATGGCAAAAC51  CCCATCTCTACCAAAAGAAAAAAANNNNACAAATTGGTGGTGTTGATGGT101 CGGCGACCATTGATCCC Total number of bases is: 117 DNA sequencecomposition: 35 A; 27 C; 28 G; 23 T; 4 Other CSITU511   GATCAGGGAGGGGCCGAAAACTGGAGATGCAGGTGTGCTGTAAGACACTG51  CAGAGAGGGCATTTACCTGCCCCATCATCCAGCACAGGAACAGCGACTGA101 CAGCGCTCACCCACCCACCATCGCCAGTCACACTGGG Total number of bases is: 137DNA sequence composition: 37 A; 42 C; 39 G; 19 T; 0 Other

The CTR-enriched subtelomeric PCR amplified library has also been usedto screen a cDNA library. 32 clones have been isolated, and partialsequence has been obtained form five clones. Their sequences are shownin Table 10.

Two of these clones, PhC4 and PHCS, have been characterized on Northernblots. Both hybridize to the same two mRNAs of approximately 6.2 and 7.7Kb. Since the 3′ sequences of PHC4 and PHCS are different, this suggeststhey may represent alternative splicing products of the same gene. Bothmessages are abundant in PDL 38 IMR90 cells, which have relatively longtelomeres, and neither is expressed in the immortal IDH4 cells (whichhave very short telomeres) that were derived from IMR90. This supportsthe hypothesis that the expression of genes located in the subtelomericDNA are regulated by telomeric length. This data is evidence that theabove mentioned procedure provides a means of obtaining sequenceslocated in the proximity of telomeres, some of which encode mRNA. Thosesequences which are unique to individual chromosomes will be useful ingenomic mapping. Those which are active genes and differentiallyexpressed in cells with differing telomere length, may play an importantrole in communicating information relating to telomere length to thecell. Genes that regulate the onset of M1 senescence can be isolated bythese means, as will as genes which modulate telomerase activity. Thefunction of the telomeric genes can be identified by overexpression andknock-out in young senescent and immortal cells. Such cDNAs, antisensemolecules, and the encoded proteins may have important therapeutic anddiagnostic value in regard to their modulation of cell proliferation inage-related disease and hyperplasias such as cancer.

TABLE 10 Partial Sequence of subtelomeric cDNA clones. PHC4-5′end1  GGCTCGAGAACGGGAGGAGGGGGCTCTTGTATCAGGGCCCGTTGTCACAT51 CTGCTCTCAGCTTGTTGAAAACTCATAATC Total number of bases is: 80 DNAsequence composition: 17 A; 19 C; 24 G; 20 T; 0 Other PHC5-3′END1   AGGTCCCTTGGTCGTGATCCGGGAAGGGGCCTGACGTTGCGGGAGATCGA51  GTTTTCTGTGGGCTTGGGGAACCTCTCACGTTGCTGTGTCCTGGTGAGCA101 GCCCGGACCAATAAACCTGCTTTTCTTAAAAGGAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 151 AAAAAAATotal number of bases is: 157 DNA sequence composition: 47 A; 31 C; 44G; 3S T; 0 Other PHC71   ATCTAGGTTTTTTAAAAAAGCTTTGAGAGGTAATTACTTGCATATGAGAG51  AATAAAACATTTGGCACATTGTTAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA101 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Total number of bases is: 120 DNA sequehcecomposition: 73 A; 7 C; 14 G; 26 T; 0 Other PHC81   CTCATTTACTTTTCTCTTATAGCGTGGCTTTAAACATATATACATTTGTA51  TATATGTATATATGAATATAATGTATAAAATGTATGTAGATGTATATACA101 AAAAATAAACGAGATGGGTTAAAGATATGTAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Total number ofbases is: 149 DNA sequence composition: 69 A; 11 C; 19 G; 50 T; 0 OtherPHC9 1   AGTCCCAGCTACTCGGGAGGGCTGAGGCAGGAGAATGGCGTGAACCCAGG51  AGGCGAAGCTTGCAGTGAGCTGAGATCGCGCCACTGCACTCCAGCCTGGA101 CGACAGAGCGAGACTCTGTCTCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Total number of bases is:169 DNA sequence composition: 47 A; 35 C; 39 G; 48T; 0 Other

Example 20

Isolation of Factors that Derepress Telomerase

The M2 mechanism of cellular senescence occurs when insufficient numbersof telomeric repeats remain to support continued cellular proliferation.Escape from the M2 mechanism and immortalization occur concomitantlywith the induction of telomerase activity and stabilization of telomerelength, and thus the inactivation of the M2 mechanism directly orindirectly derepresses telomerase.

The gene(s) regulating the M2 mechanism have been tagged with retroviralsequences. The methods by which this was accomplished consisted of firstdetermining the frequency at which a clone of SV40 T-antigen transfectedhuman lung fibroblasts was able to escape M2 and become immortal(T-antigen blocks the M1 mechanism, thus the M2 mechanism is the soleremaining block to immortality in these cells). The pre-crisis cellswere then infected with a defective retrovirus in order to insertionallymutagenize potential M2 genes, and it was shown that the frequency ofimmortalization was increased by almost three-fold. Finally, pulse-fieldelectrophoresis of different immortalized insertionally mutagenizedlines was used to identify which of the lines became immortal due to aninsertion into the same M2 gene. Since an M2 mechanism gene has now beentagged with retroviral sequences, those with ordinary skills in the artcan now clone and identify the specific gene. The methods used were asfollows:

The frequency of escape from crisis (e.g., the immortalization frequencyof T-antigen expressing cells) was estimated using an approach based onwhat is essentially a fluctuation analysis as previously described(Shay, J. W., and Wright, W. E. (1989) Exp. Cell Res. 184, 109-118).SW26 cells (a clone isolated from IMR 90 normal human lung fibroblaststransfected with a vector expressing SV40 large T antigen) were expandedapproximately 15 PDL's before crisis into multiple series at a constantcell density of 6667 cells/cm². Each series was subsequently maintainedas a separate culture, so that at the end of the experiment the fractionof each series that gave rise to immortal cell lines could bedetermined. Cultures were split at or just prior to confluence at 6667cells/cm². Once cells reached crisis they were split at least once everythree weeks until virtually no surviving cells remained or the culturehad immortalized. When too few cells were obtained, all of the cellswere put back into culture in a single dish. Fibroblasts were consideredimmortal if vigorous growth occurred after crisis during twosubcultivations in which 1000 cells were seeded into 50 cm² dishes andallowed to proliferate for three weeks for each cycle.

SW 26 cells enter crisis at approximately PDL 82-85. Numerous vials ofSW26 cells (8×10⁶ cells/vial) were frozen at PDL 71, and testingverified that spontaneous immortalization events had not yet occurred.Five vials were thawed, scaled up for 4 days to approximately 10⁸ cells(thus to approximately PDL 74), then trypsinized and combined into asingle pool of cells in 40 ml of medium and distributed into 200 10 cm²dishes. Thirty dishes were treated with 25 μg/ml bleomycin sulfate (achemical mutagen) for two hours in serum free medium one day later.Since this concentration of bleomycin sulfate resulted in approximately50% of the IMR-90 SW26 cells dying, these dishes had been plated attwice the cell density as the rest.

The remainder of the dishes were used as controls (70 dishes) orinfected with LNL6 defective retrovirus (100 dishes). LML6 was generatedin the amphotrophic packaging line PA317 according to previouslydescribed procedures (Miller and Rosman, 1989, Biotechniques 7,980-990). Culture supernatant from LNL6 infected PA317 cells were usedto infect one hundred dishes containing approximately 5×10⁵ cells in thepresence of 2 μg/ml of polybrene. Control medium supernatant fromuninfected PA317 cells containing polybrene were used to treat 70 dishesand served as controls. Within a few days after infection, all controland experimental dishes were counted and each dish contained 1-2×10⁶cells. The PDL of each dish was calculated and cells were then replatedat 0.33×10⁶ in 50 cm² dishes and maintained separately to conduct thefluctuation analysis.

Bleomycin treated SW26 cells escaped crisis with an approximatelytwo-fold higher frequency (7.7×10⁻⁷) than the spontaneous rate(4.7×10⁻⁷). Pre-crisis SW26 cells infected with the defective retrovirusLNL6 in order to produce insertional mutations yielded a frequency ofescape from crisis (10.9×10⁻⁷) that was 2-3 fold greater than the ratefrom simultaneous control series mock-infected with culture supernatantfrom the non-infected packaging line.

TABLE 10 Bleomycin Sulfate Exposure and Retrovirus Infection IncreaseImmortalization Frequency Addition Immortalization Frequency Nil 10/684.4 × 10⁻⁷ Bleomycin sulfate  7/27 7.7 × 10⁻⁷ LNL6 retrovirus 36/99 10.9× 10⁻⁷ 

Immortalization is expressed as the number of immortal lines per numberof culture series, each series being derived from a single dish at theinitiation of the experiment. Frequency is expressed as the probabilityof obtaining an immortal cell line based on the number of cells platedat each passage (not per cell division).

DNA has been isolated from 23 of the 36 independent cell lines obtainedfollowing insertional mutagenesis with LNL6, and 7 of these (30%) didnot contain retroviral sequences when analyzed on Southern Blots, whilemost of the remainder contained single insertions. Given that thosewithout retroviral insertions had to represent spontaneousimmortalization events, most of the remaining clones with retroviralinsertions should be due to insertional mutagenesis if the frequency ofimmortalization was actually increased 2-3 fold. DNA from 12 lines hasbeen digested with the rare-cutting enzyme Sfi1, followed by pulse-fieldelectrophoresis, transfer to nylon membranes and probing with theretrovirus LTR. Six of the 12 lines contained a common band ofapproximately 350 Kbp that hybridized to the retroviral LTR. Four ofthese six have also been analyzed following BamH1 digestion, and threeof these four also contained a common band of approximately 20 Kbp.Given that the retrovirus is 6 Kbp long, this strongly suggests that theretrovirus has inserted multiple times within 14 Kbp region of DMNA,which is strongly suggestive of a single gene. Digestion with EcoR1,which cuts within the retrovirus, yields different size fragments foreach line, establishing that they represent different insertional eventsand are truly independent isolates. The use of retroviral sequences toclone the genomic DNA flanking the insertion sites should now permitpositive identification of a gene involved in the M2 mechanism.Interference with the function of that gene (for example, usingantisense techniques) should result in the derepression of telomeraseand the ability to extend the lifespan of normal human cells. This geneshould also prove to be mutated in a variety of cancer cells, and isthus likely to be of diagnostic and therapeutic value in cancer as well.

Example 21

Tissue Distribution of Telomerase Activity in Primates

S100 extracts were prepared from a 12 year old healthy male RhesusMacaque to determine the tissue distribution of telomerase activity.Abundant telomerase activity was detected only from the testis. Samplesof tissue from the brain, kidney, and liver displayed no detectableactivity. This suggests that telomerase inhibition as a therapeuticmodality for cancer has the unique advantage of not being abundant innormal tissues with the exception of the germ line. Therefore telomeraseinhibitors should be targeted away from the germ cells in reproductiveaged individuals to decrease the chance of birth defects. Such targetingmay be accomplished by localized injection or release of the activeagent near the site of the tumor. The effect of the telomeraseinhibitors in the male may be easily determined by measuring telomererepeat length in the sperm.

61 60 nucleic acid single linear 1 TTAGGGTTAG GGTTAGGGTT AGGGTTAGGGTTAGGGTTAG GGTTAGGGTT AGGGTTAGGG 60 12 nucleic acid single linear 2CCCTAACCCT AA 12 12 nucleic acid single linear 3 TTAGGGTTAG GG 12 18nucleic acid single linear 4 CCCTAACCCT AACCCTAA 18 18 nucleic acidsingle linear 5 TTAGGGTTAG GGTTAGGG 18 24 nucleic acid single linear 6CCCTAACCCT AACCCTAACC CTAA 24 12 nucleic acid single linear 7 CCCTAACCCTAA 12 13 nucleic acid single linear 8 ACGGATGTCT AAC 13 10 nucleic acidsingle linear 9 TTCTTGGTGT 10 13 nucleic acid single linear 10ACGGATGTCA CGA 13 10 nucleic acid single linear 11 TCATTGGTGT 10 13nucleic acid single linear 12 AAGGATGTCA CGA 13 13 nucleic acid singlelinear 13 ACGGATGCAG ACT 13 10 nucleic acid single linear 14 CGCTTGGTGT10 25 nucleic acid single linear 15 ACGGATTTGA TTAGTTATGT GGTGT 25 25nucleic acid single linear 16 ACGGATTTGA TTAGGTATGT GGTGT 25 8 nucleicacid single linear 17 CTGGGTGC 8 8 nucleic acid single linear 18TGTGGGGT 8 11 nucleic acid single linear 19 GTGTAAGGAT G 11 5 base pairsnucleic acid single linear 20 TGGTG 5 12 nucleic acid single linear 21ACGGATGTCA CG 12 11 nucleic acid single linear 22 GTGTAAGGAT G 11 26nucleic acid single linear 23 TTAGGGTTAG GGTTAGGGGG GGGGGG 26 26 nucleicacid single linear 24 TTAGGGTTAG GGTTGGGGGG GGGGGG 26 26 nucleic acidsingle linear 25 TTAGGGTTAG GGTGGGGGGG GGGGGG 26 16 nucleic acid singlelinear 26 CCCCCCCCTA ACCCTA 16 16 nucleic acid single linear 27CCCCCCCCAA CCCTAA 16 16 nucleic acid single linear 28 CCCCCCCCAC CCTAAC16 24 nucleic acid single linear 29 TTAGGGTTAG GGTTAGGGTT AGGG 24 37nucleic acid single linear 30 CAATAATGTA TTAAAAATAT GCTACTTATG CATTATC37 23 nucleic acid single linear 31 TGGTACCGTC GAAAGCTTGA CTG 23 14nucleic acid single linear 32 ATGAACTGAC CTAG 14 170 nucleic acid singlelinear 33 GATCTAGGCA CAGCTGCTTC TCATTAGGCA GGTCTCAGCT AGAAGACCACTTCCCTCCCT 60 GAGGAAGTCA ACCCTTCTGC CACCCCATGG CCTTGCTTAA ATTTTCAGACTGTCGAATTG 120 GAATCCTACC TCCATTAGCT ACTAGCTTGG GCAAGATACA GAGCCCTCCC170 116 nucleic acid single linear 34 ATATATGCGC TACATAAATG TATCTAGATGCAATTATCTA GATACATATA AGAAAGTATT 60 TGAAGGCCTT CTACAAGGCT TAGTTATTATATTGGTTCAT ACAAGTTCTT CTTCAG 116 176 nucleic acid single linear 35ATCCTTCTCC GCAAACTAAC AGGAACAGAA AACCAAACAC TGCATGTTCT CACATCATTG 60TGGGAGTTGA ACAATGAGAA CACATGGACA CAGGGAGGGG AACATCACAC ACTCGGGGTG 120TCAGCCGGGT GGGAGGGTAG AGGAGGAGAA ATACCTAAGT TCCAGATGAC AGGTTG 176 169nucleic acid single linear 36 GATCTATGCT ACCTCTAGGG ATGGCACCATTCACAAGCAC AAAGGAGATG TCAGTGATTA 60 AAAACACATG CTCTGGAGTC TGAGAGACTTTGAGACTTGC TAGCTTGTGA CTCTGCAGAG 120 TTTAAGGTAT CTGGACCCCT TTTTCCCTCATGTGCATAAT GAAGAGATT 169 192 nucleic acid single linear 37 GATCAACACTGTTAGTTGAG TACCCACATC ACAAACGTGA TTCTCAGAAT GCCTTCCTTC 60 CTGTCTAGTTTCTATAGGTA GATATTTCCT TTTTCAGCAT AGGCCTGAAA AGCCGCCTCC 120 AAATGCCCGCCTTCCAGACA CTATAAAAAG AGGGTTCAAA CCTACTCTAT GAAAGGGAAT 180 GTTCAACACA GA192 157 nucleic acid single linear The letter “N” stands for any base.38 GATCTGTTTA TTATTCTTCC AATATCTCCC CATCTCTTAA AAATTGGTTA TTTCTTCGTT 60CATACATTTT TATCTCCCAA ATTANNNNTG AGACTGGTTT GAAGAGAGGA AAGCAATGTA 120CACACTTTTA TATTCCACCA TGTATATCCG GATATCC 157 135 nucleic acid singlelinear 39 AATCCTCCTA CCTTAACCTC CCTTTGTTAG CCTGCCATTA CAGGTGTGAGCCACCATTGC 60 TCATTCGTCC GTTTATTCAT TCAACAAATC AATCGATCTA TTACATGTGAGGGACTCTTC 120 AGGTCATGGG AATTC 135 117 nucleic acid single linear Theletter “N” stands for any base. 40 GATCACTTGA GCCCAGGAGT TTGAGACCAGCCTGGGTGAC ATGGCAAAAC CCCATCTCTA 60 CCAAAAGAAA AAAANNNNAC AAATTGGTGGTGTTGATGGT CGGCGACCAT TGATCCC 117 137 nucleic acid single linear 41GATCAGGGAG GGGCCGAAAA CTGGAGATGC AGGTGTGCTG TAAGACACTG CAGAGAGGGC 60ATTTACCTGC CCCATCATCC AGCACAGGAA CAGCGACTGA CAGCGCTCAC CCACCCACCA 120TCGCCAGTCA CACTGGG 137 80 nucleic acid single linear 42 GGCTCGAGAACGGGAGGAGG GGGCTCTTGT ATCAGGGCCC GTTGTCACAT CTGCTCTCAG 60 CTTGTTGAAAACTCATAATC 80 157 nucleic acid single linear 43 AGGTCCCTTG GTCGTGATCCGGGAAGGGGC CTGACGTTGC GGGAGATCGA GTTTTCTGTG 60 GGCTTGGGGA ACCTCTCACGTTGCTGTGTC CTGGTGAGCA GCCCGGACCA ATAAACCTGC 120 TTTTCTTAAA AGGAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA 157 120 nucleic acid single linear 44 ATCTAGGTTTTTTAAAAAAG CTTTGAGAGG TAATTACTTG CATATGAGAG AATAAAACAT 60 TTGGCACATTGTTAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA 120 149 nucleicacid single linear 45 CTCATTTACT TTTCTCTTAT AGCGTGGCTT TAAACATATATACATTTGTA TATATGTATA 60 TATGAATATA ATGTATAAAA TGTATGTAGA TGTATATACAAAAAATAAAC GAGATGGGTT 120 AAAGATATGT AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA 149 142nucleic acid single linear 46 AGTCCCAGCT ACTCGGGAGG GCTGAGGCAGGAGAATGGCG TGAACCCAGG AGGCGAAGCT 60 TGCAGTGAGC TGAGATCGCG CCACTGCACTCCAGCCTGGA CGACAGAGCG AGACTCTGTC 120 TCAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AA 142 7 basepairs nucleic acid single linear 47 TGGTGTG 7 9 base pairs nucleic acidsingle linear 48 TGGTGTGTG 9 11 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 49TGGTGTGTGT G 11 13 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 50 TGGTGTGTGTGTG 13 15 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 51 TGGTGTGTGT GTGTG 15 6base pairs nucleic acid single linear 52 TGGGTG 6 8 base pairs nucleicacid single linear 53 TGGGTGTG 8 10 base pairs nucleic acid singlelinear 54 TGGGTGTGTG 10 12 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 55TGGGTGTGTG TG 12 14 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 56 TGGGTGTGTGTGTG 14 16 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 57 TGGGTGTGTG TGTGTG 1615 base pairs nucleic acid single linear 58 TTGGGGTTGGGGTTG 15 25 basepairs nucleic acid single linear 59 GTGGCTTCACACAAAATCTAAGCGC 25 16 basepairs nucleic acid single linear 60 CCCTAACCCTAACCCT 16 20 base pairsnucleic acid single linear 61 CCCTAACCCTAACCCTAACC 20

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of screening to determine whether anon-deoxyribonucleotide test compound can inhibit telomerase activity ofa cell, said method comprising: providing a reaction mixture thatcomprises a preparation comprising telomerase activity, anoligonucleotide primer for telomerase activity, nucleosidetriphosphates, and a plurality of test compounds; incubating saidreaction mixture under conditions which, in the absence of an inhibitorof said telomerase activity, allow said oligonucleotide primer to beextended by telomerase activity to incorporate one or more of saidnucleoside triphosphates; and determining whether said oligonucleotideprimer is extended.
 2. A screening method according to claim 1 whereinsaid telomerase activity is a protozoan telomerase activity.
 3. Ascreening method according to claim 2 wherein said protozoan telomeraseactivity is a ciliate telomerase activity.
 4. A screening methodaccording to claim 3, wherein said ciliate telomerase activity is aTetrahymena telomerase activity.
 5. A screening method according toclaim 1 wherein said telomerase activity is a fungal telomeraseactivity.
 6. A screening method according to claim 1 wherein saidtelomerase activity is a mammalian telomerase activity.
 7. A screeningmethod according to claim 6 wherein said mammalian telomerase activityis a human telomerase activity.
 8. A screening method according to claim1 wherein said oligonucleotide primer or one of said nucleosidetriphosphates is labeled with a detectable label.
 9. A screening methodaccording to claim 8 wherein said detectable label is biotin.
 10. Ascreening method according to claim 1 wherein saidnon-deoxyribonucleotide test compound is a polypeptide or a syntheticchemical.
 11. A screening method according to claim 1 wherein saidnon-deoxyribonucleotide test compound is a synthetic chemical.
 12. Ascreening method according to claim 1 wherein a plurality of testcompounds are assayed in reaction mixtures in one or more 96-wellmicrotiter plates.
 13. A screening method according to claim 1 whereinsaid non-deoxyribonucleotide test compound is selected from the groupconsisting of anticancer compounds, antiparasite compounds, andantifuingal compounds.
 14. A method according to claim 1 furthercomprising correlating a lack of or a reduction in primer extension inthe presence of said non-deoxyribonucleotide test compound, as comparedwith primer extension in the absence of said non-deoxyribonucleotidetest compound, with inhibition of said telomerase activity by saidnon-deoxyribonucleotide test compound.
 15. A method of screening todetermine whether a test compound can inhibit telomerase activity of amammalian or fungal cell, said method comprising: providing a reactionmixture that comprises a preparation comprising a telomerase activityselected from the group consisting of a mammalian telomerase activityand a fungal telomerase activity, an oligonucleotide primer for saidtelomerase activity, nucleoside triphosphates, and said test compound;incubating said reaction mixture under conditions which, in the absenceof an inhibitor of said telomerase activity, allow said oligonucleotideprimer to be extended to incorporate one or more of said nucleosidetriphosphates; determining whether said oligonucleotide primer isextended in the presence of said test compound to the same extent aswhen said test compound is absent from the reaction mixture; exposing amammalian or fungal cell to the test compound under conditions which, inthe absence of an inhibitor of telomerase activity of said cell, allowtelomere maintenance; and correlating telomere maintenance or lackthereof in said cell with inhibition of telomerase activity by said testcompound.
 16. A screening method according to claim 15 wherein saidfungal telomerase activity is a yeast telomerase activity.
 17. Ascreening method according to claim 16 wherein said yeast telomeraseactivity is derived from a yeast selected form the group consisting ofCandida albicans, Candida guillermondii, Candida pseudotropicals,Candida lusitaniae, Candida maltosa, Candida tropicalis, Kluyveromyceslactis, and Sacchromyces cerevisiae.
 18. A screening method according toclaim 15 wherein said mammalian telormerase activity is derived from amammal selected from the group consisting of a primate, equine, bovine,ovine, porcine, feline, and canine animal.
 19. A screening methodaccording to claim 15 wherein said mammalian telomerase activity is ahuman telomerase activity.
 20. A screening method according to claim 19wherein the method is a high throughput test compound screen.
 21. Ascreening method according to claim 20 wherein the reaction mixturecomprises a plurality of test compounds.
 22. A screening methodaccording to claim 15 wherein said oligonucleotide primer or one of saidnucleoside triphosphates is labeled with a detectable label.
 23. Ascreening method according to claim 22 wherein said detectable label isbiotin.
 24. A screening method according to claim 15 wherein said testcompound is a nucleoside analog.
 25. A method of screening to determinewhether a test compound can inhibit telomerase activity of a human cell,said method comprising: combining in a reaction mixture a preparationcomprising human telomerase activity, an oligonucleotide primer for saidtelomerase activity, nucleoside triphosphates, and said test compound;incubating said reaction mixture under conditions which, in the absenceof an inhibitor of such telomerase activity, allow said oligonucleotideprimer to be extended to incorporate one or more of said nucleosidetriphosphates; determining whether said oligonucleotide primer isextended in the presence of said test compound to the same extent aswhen said test compound is absent from the reaction mixture; exposingcells which express a human telomerase activity to the test compoundunder conditions which, in the absence of an inhibitor of humantelomerase activity expressed in said cells, allow telomere maintenance;and correlating telomere maintenance or lack thereof in said cell withinhibition of telomerase activity by said test compound.
 26. A screeningmethod according to claim 25 wherein the method is a high throughputtest compound screen.
 27. A screening method according to claim 26wherein the reaction mixture comprises a plurality of test compounds.28. A screening method according to claim 25 wherein saidoligonucleotide primer or one of said nucleoside triphosphates islabeled with a detectable label.
 29. A screening method according toclaim 28 wherein said detectable label is biotin.
 30. A screening methodaccording to claim 25 wherein said test compound is a nucleoside analog.31. A method of screening to determine whether an oligonucleotide testcompound can inhibit telomerase activity of a mammalian or fungal cell,said method comprising: providing a reaction mixture that comprises apreparation comprising a telomerase activity selected from the groupconsisting of a mammalian telomerase activity and a fungal telomeraseactivity, an oligonucleotide primer for said telomerase activity,nucleoside triphosphates, and said oligonucleotide test compound;incubating said reaction mixture under conditions which, in the absenceof an inhibitor of said telomerase activity, allow said oligonucleotideprimer to be extended to incorporate one or more of said nucleosidetriphosphates; determining whether said oligonucleotide primer isextended in the presence of said oligonucleotide test compound to thesame extent as when said oligonucleotide test compound is absent fromthe reaction mixture and, if not; exposing a mammalian or fungal cell tothe oligonucleotide test compound under conditions which, in the absenceof an inhibitor of telomerase activity of said cell, allow telomeremaintenance; and correlating telomere maintenance or lack thereof insaid cell with inhibition of telomerase activity by said oligonucleotidetest compound.
 32. A screening method according to claim 31 wherein saidfungal telomerase activity is a yeast telomerase activity.
 33. Ascreening method according to claim 32 wherein said yeast telomeraseactivity is derived from a yeast selected from the group consisting ofCandida albicans, Candida guillermondii, Candida pseudotropicalis,Candida lusitaniae, Candida maltosa, Candida tropicalis, Kluyveromyceslactis, and Sacchromyces cerevisiae.
 34. A screening method according toclaim 31 wherein said mammalian telomerase activity is derived from amammal selected from the group consisting of a primate, equine, bovine,ovine, porcine, feline, and canine animal.
 35. A screening methodaccording to claim 31 wherein said mammalian telomerase activity is ahuman telomerase activity.
 36. A screening method according to claim 35that is a high throughput test compound screen.
 37. A screening methodaccording to claim 36 wherein a plurality of oligonucleotide testcompounds are assayed in reaction mixtures in one or more 96-wellmicrotiter plates.
 38. A screening method according to claim 31 whereinsaid primer or one of said nucleoside triphosphates is labeled with adetectable label.
 39. A screening method according to claim 38 whereinsaid detectable label is biotin.
 40. A screening method according toclaim 31 wherein said oligonucleotide test compound is an antisenseoligonucleotide.
 41. A screening method according to claim 40 whereinsaid antisense oligonucleotide comprises ribonucleotides.
 42. Ascreening method according to claim 31 wherein said oligonucleotide testcompound is a polyribonucleotide antisense RNA.
 43. A screening methodaccording to claim 42 wherein said polyribonucleotide antisense RNAfurther comprises a ribozyme.
 44. A screening method according to claim31 wherein said oligonucleotide test compound is a ribozyme.
 45. Amethod of screening to determine whether an oligonucleotide testcompound can inhibit telomerase activity of a human cell, said methodcomprising: combining in a reaction mixture a preparation comprisinghuman telomerase activity, an oligonucleotide primer for said telomeraseactivity, nucleoside triphosphates, and said test compound; incubatingsaid reaction mixture under conditions which, in the absence of aninhibitor of such telomerase activity, allow said oligonucleotide primerto be extended to incorporate one or more of said nucleosidetriphosphates; and determining whether said oligonucleotide primer isextended in the presence of said oligonucleotide test compound to thesame extent as when said oligonucleotide test compound is absent fromthe reaction mixture, and, if not; exposing cells which express a humantelomerase activity to the oligonucleotide test compound underconditions which, in the absence of an inhibitor of human telomeraseactivity expressed in said cells, allow telomere maintenance; andcorrelating telomere maintenance or lack thereof in said cells withinhibition of said human telomerase activity by said oligonucleotidetest compound.
 46. A screening method according to claim 45 that is ahigh throughput test compound screen.
 47. A screening method accordingto claim 46 wherein a plurality of oligonucleotide test compounds areassayed in reaction mixtures in one or more 96-well microtiter plates.48. A screening method according to claim 45 wherein saidoligonucleotide primer or one of said nucleoside triphosphates islabeled with a detectable label.
 49. A screening method according toclaim 48 wherein said detectable label is biotin.
 50. A screening methodaccording to claim 45 wherein said oligonucleotide test compound is anantisense oligonucleotide.
 51. A method according to claim 50 whereinsaid antisense oligonucleotide comprises ribonucleotides.
 52. A methodaccording to claim 45 wherein said oligonucleotide test compound is apolyribonucleotide antisense RNA.
 53. A method according to claim 52wherein said polyribonucleotide antisense RNA further comprises aribozyme.
 54. A method according to claim 45 wherein saidoligonucleotide test compound is a ribozyme.